In the notebook

Catherine began to stage comedies, which were edifying in nature and were not in demand. In response to this, Novikov began publishing the magazine “Zhivopiets” in April 1772. Published until June 1773. The magazine was in demand and had a circulation of 600 copies. In the first issue he raises the topic of the peasantry. The material was called “Excerpt from a trip to *** I*** T***” and was published under his own name. It talks about a walk through peasant lands, that everything is bad for them: unplowed fields, crop failure - he attributes this to the poor care of the landowners. The main place of stay is the village of Ruined. The material sparked discussion. An excerpt from “An English Walk” will be published in one of the next issues. Written to soften the previous material – number 13. Issue 14 continues the journey. It was different from the first part - ordinary satire, carriers of vices, abstract satire. Another important topic is the topic of education. Novikov said that nobles who did not undergo proper education would be bad servants of the state.

Novikov adheres to the line of “Drone” - a specific satire. Denunciation of social, not moral evil. The principle of typing. In the second year of life, the “Painter” fades, just like the “Drone”. In 1773, strange materials and translations were sometimes published. At the end of June 1773 it closes without explanation to the reader.

Existed until April 27, 1770. Considers three types of activity: military, civil and court. He evaluates them critically, especially the last one.

Magazine "Wallet". The fight against gallomania, for the democratization of the literary language in Novikov’s magazines

“The Purse” is the last satirical publication, which began publication in July 1774 and lasted about three months, until September 8. 9 issues of the magazine were published. The publication was weekly; information about its circulation has not been preserved. The magazine was supposed to glorify ancient Russian virtues and, first of all, national dignity, condemn noble gallomania, cosmopolitanism

Its character was sharply different from all previous Novikov publications and turns out to be the last satirical magazine of this wonderful publisher. Novikov begins to promote patriotic ideas. The targets of his attacks are the French, who are allegedly corrupting Russian society. Novikov's contemporary decline in morals was contrasted in the magazine with the virtues of past centuries, and the utopian idea of ​​unifying the interests of landowners and peasants was put forward.

Novikov chose the name “Wallet” for his new magazine not by chance. He promises to explain its meaning to readers in the preface, but the promise remains unfulfilled. Nevertheless, some assumptions can be made on this matter. The word wallet in the 18th century. had several meanings, and in addition to an item for storing money, a purse was a part of a fashionable toilet in the form of a purse that protected the collar from powder falling off the wig. In all likelihood, both of these meanings feed the allegorical subtext of Novikov’s chosen name for his magazine. One aspect of this subtext is the emphasized patriotism that colors the substantive pathos of the new publication. But some materials contained in the magazine suggest the presence in it of a hidden idea of ​​​​transforming the pockets of Russian nobles into a kind of bottomless wallet, skillfully emptied by clever visiting adventurers.

“Wallet” was not distinguished by the richness of its content, but the direction of its pathos is obvious. Already on the very first page, the publisher’s position was stated directly and bluntly, starting with the dedication. “This essay is zealously dedicated to my Fatherland,” it read on the first page. And the subsequent appeal to the readers, “Instead of a Preface,” revealed the initial ideological guidelines of the editors: “Two reasons prompted me to publish this weak creation and dedicate it to my Fatherland: the first is that I, being born and raised in the bowels of the Fatherland, am indebted to it for this to serve with all my labors and to love it, just as I love it out of innate feeling and respect for the ancient great virtues that adorned our forefathers.”

In the preface to “Purse,” the idea is conveyed that gallomania is one of the causes of many vices of Russian society and that each nation has its own character. In general, the magazine was much more lenient towards the Germans and the British than towards the French. This is most likely explained by the fact that there were especially many Gallomaniacs in high society at that time. It is unknown who collaborated in “Purse,” but his articles were very harsh, both regarding Russian French lovers and regarding the French themselves, who were presented in an unattractive manner. They say that the harshness of the articles armed many courtiers and high-ranking officials against Novikov and that the troubles he experienced were the reason for the closure of the Wallet in September 1774. It is quite possible that the termination of “Purse” was also determined by Novikov’s internal state: he was drawn to act for the benefit of enlightenment in other ways. It is very possible that the temporary return to satire was only the fruit of the mental fluctuations that accompany such transitions, and was caused by intensified gallomania and the desire to reckon with it.

The main idea of ​​“Wallet” is already expressed in the preface to the magazine. His very first article is devoted to the issue of “abuse that has crept into us to corrupt the Russian dialect,” i.e. about the use of foreign words in it. Following this article, publications began in the magazine “Conversations” - between a Russian and a Frenchman and between a German and a Frenchman; they occupied the 2nd and 3rd pages of the magazine. Here it is proven that “Russians are all inclined to do good,” that “our ancestors were a hundred times more virtuous than us, and our land did not bear any fiends who had no inclination to do good and did not love their fatherland.” On the contrary, the French are not very virtuous. It is French swindlers who come to Russia. They raise Russian nobles, i.e. corrupt their hearts; they deliberately infect them with “love for the French and ... disgust for their compatriots.” The Frenchman says: “My philosophy is: deceiving a fool, there is no sin or shame in that”; Such is the parody of the "Purse" on the moral teachings of the encyclopedists.

At the end of this long article it says: “Oh, if only human power could bring back to the enlightenment of the Russians their former morals, destroyed by the introduction of wallets into use [a wallet is a special bow on a man’s hairstyle, on a man’s braid; this is French fashion, hence the name of the magazine]; then it would be possible to set them up as models of man. It seems to me that the wise ancient Russian sovereigns supposedly had a presentiment that by introducing the sciences and arts into Russia, the most precious Russian treasure, morals, would be destroyed irrevocably; and therefore they would rather see their subjects in some parts of the sciences ignorant, but with good morals, virtuous people, faithful to God, the sovereign and the fatherland.”

And Empress Catherine II decided to influence her contemporary society, with the goal of which she began to publish the magazine “All sorts of things,” which became the first Russian satirical magazine. And it happened in 1769.

However, other enlightened people, seeing this, did not decide to stay on the sidelines and began to publish their own, and even worse ones.
Novikov took on the publication of “Drone”, Emin took on “Hell Mail”, and Chulkov took on “Ito and Sio”. And a competition began between the first Russian satirists, who secretly called “All sorts of things”, which was the first to appear and inspired them (and besides, published by the Empress herself), their “grandmother”. Or maybe they hinted at the empress.

However, it soon became clear that the “Drone” turned out to be the most satirical and therefore harmful to the morals of the backward and the nobles who adhered to them. And he was so caustic and caustic that the empress could not stand it and became angry.

And what angered the “grandmother”?

Yes, the fact that “Drone” ridiculed the admiration for the foreign, regardless of the person. And the “grandmother” herself, by the way, was very fond of French, corresponded with Voltaire and saw a hint about herself.

But what angered Grandmother Catherine much more was that Novikov was indignant at the bribery of judges, the greed of the nobility and the especially oppressed position of the peasants.

And although the young 24-year-old nobleman tried to restrain himself, he nevertheless put the thoughts of his opponents into the mouth of a certain Nedoum, which made quite a number of courtiers extremely angry. And when “All sorts of things” tried to reason with the young man, she received an answer from Pravdulyubov, that is, Novikov.

And then Catherine became very angry and took measures to eliminate the evil “Drone”. And she punished Novikov not weakly.

And since this story is the ancestor of our satire, then the current generation of Russian Pravdulyubovs has a direct reason to perceive the skill and courage of the publisher of “Drone” and multiply in their research about the paths of Russian sovereignty and democracy, their relationship, as well as the good undertakings and harsh realities of the newborn party projects, among which there are “All sorts of things” and “Neither this nor that”, and “Drone” like this has not yet been found in the vastness of Russia covered by the Internet, which is the only overseas invention to which it would be worthy to bow your neck.

With satirical greetings,

Satirical editor of the Pravdorubov Agitclub

And the most unpleasant thing for the empress, although great but touchy, was contained on the cover of the first issue of “Drone” - this epigraph:

THEY WORK, AND YOU EAT THEIR WORK!

Insolence, sir! Even impudence, sir! Who do you want to hint at?!

From the site editor

Catherine the Great is characterized as an enlightened ruler. Perhaps even as the most enlightened of all Russian autocrats and autocrats. No wonder she corresponded with Voltaire himself. But she was sensitive to some phenomena of contemporary culture - for example, satire.
What you can laugh at, at whom and how loudly - this is where the views of the Empress and Novikov diverged. And on some other issues too. That's why...

But it’s best to get acquainted with the work of Novikov himself.

We present texts written by Nikolai Ivanovich Novikov and published by him in Trutna (as well as some of his other publications) with partial preservation spelling and punctuation based on the reproduction of the first edition of “Drone” of 1769, made in 1906 by the Russian book publisher A.S. Suvorin.

And in order for you to appreciate the peculiarities of spelling and stylistics of the Russian language in those ancient times, with which we had to struggle a lot, we present facsimile reproductions of several publications from different issues of “Drone”:

So it turns out that already in 1769 in Russia they exposed bribery among judges and other phenomena that the “grandmother” considered “individual shortcomings”, and the publisher Drone considered vices.

But before giving the floor to the publisher himself (as well as some of its authors), a few words about this very epigraph

"They work, and you eat their work."

These words do not belong to Novikov, but to another writer - A.P. Sumarokov, who organized 10 years before Novikov and Catherine the first private magazine in Russia - “The Hardworking Bee”, which was published in 1759 (a total of 12 issues were published).

Alexander Petrovich Sumarokov himself was born into a noble family on November 14, 1717 in St. Petersburg. He gained fame already in 1847 thanks to the play “The Choreans”, performed at court. He was the director of the theater, founded in 1856, for which he wrote several tragedies and comedies. He wrote poetry - elegies, songs, epigrams, madrigals, epitaphs, fables, satires. And parodies (in particular, of the outstanding Russian scientist, but also a little of the poet M.V. Lomonosov)

Sumarokov, of course, was not an exposer of the autocracy, but he paid attention to some of the “shortcomings” of the nobles and landowners and somewhat mocked them. So in one of his works, a certain tit bird says that “across the sea, people are not traded, villages are not put on the map, peasants are not skinned.” And in Russia there was plenty of this.

The same parable from which Novikov borrowed the epigraph for “The Drone” looks like this:

BEETES AND BEES

Pribasku
I'll add it up
And a fairy tale
I'll tell you.
Ignorant Bugs
Crawled into science
And they started making molasses
Train the bees.
Bees have no time to remain silent,
That they are being fooled;
The great noise in the hive has begun.
Apollo descended to them from Parnassus
And he is Zhukov
Kicked everyone out
He said: “My friends, go away into the dung;
They work, and you eat their work,
But you’re harming molasses with your stinginess!”

Molasses is honey (if you don't know)

Sumarokov wrote this parable in 1752.

Sumarokov’s magazine was called “Hardworking Bee,” and Novikov’s publication was called “Drone.”

We specifically looked into the encyclopedia and found out:

Drone- male social bees ( Apidae sociales), mainly the common honey bee ( Apis mellifica).

The purpose of drones is solely to copulate with the queen bee. During losses(nuptial flight) drones rise with the queen quite high in the air, often flying far from the hive; one of them copulates with the uterus; in this case, the copulatory organ of the drone breaks off and remains in the genital opening of the uterus, and the drone itself instantly dies and falls along with the uterus to the ground.

And this is the creature Novikov chose when thinking about the name for his magazine. I wonder who we should mean by queen bee? “Hardworking bee” is, of course, a more euphonious name.

From Sumarokov’s entire creative heritage, we will cite only three parables (whether they are related to modern politics - judge for yourself):

BOOK

Someone was chosen as a god:
He had a head, he had arms, legs
And the camp;
I just didn’t have half a brain,
And he had a wooden soul.
Was - an idol, simply: Blockhead.
And they all began to pray to Blockhead,
Shedding tears before the Blockhead
And hit the chest.
They shout: “Try to help us, try to help us!”

PIIT AND RICH MAN

A rich man wanted to be famous,
Trying to be excellent among the people of the fatherland.
He hasn’t served in the military for a long time, and he wants to be in fashion,
And without having to work at anything. Sent to call Piita
And he placed his hope of glory on him:
“Perhaps, sanctify my name in an ode!”
But what can Piitu sing about the freak?
“Be a witness to my excellence, Piit!
Sing, my friend, sing holy virtue!”
- “I’m ready to sing it.
I’ll add a lot of decent words to this.
But how, my friend, will I glorify her then,
When will I insert your name?
But I never praised donkeys.”

LACK OF TIME

Lives of idleness in the lot,
And not a single day
Didn't practice
Some young and stupid gentleman.
It seems there are much more elastic qualities there,
Where there is no small service to the fatherland.
What is a person born into?
When does he spend his time in parasitism?
Is he a member of society? My certificate for this
Entered into the protocol:
He is not a member of the body - a wart;
He is not a tree in the grove, but a withered stake;
Not a man, but an ox,
Which is not fried
And God knows why the boyars are killing him.
It seems to me, for no reason
To such a pretext and rank.
May I honor the freak
whose nature
Made a donkey?
I don’t know why thunder spares such people,
Such a thought does not even reach the point of action,
He is the friend of idleness alone,
But he places the blame on Time,
He just says: today there is no time.
What does he care about the burden of parasitism,
He puts the blame on Time,
Chatting: He has no time for business.
The time came to him at ten o'clock;
He's sleeping,
Snores
There is no time for reception
And he walks away.
At eleven o'clock he drinks tea and smokes tobacco
And he doesn't say anything.
So Time knows its capable hour.
At twelve o'clock he feasts at dinner,
Then he sleeps
He snores again.
And in the evening, idiot, he sits and cleans up -
Not thoughts, it puts your hair in order,
And the bastard goes to the public crowds,
And then he will lose at cards.
This city is unhappy
Where every day is almost a club and a masquerade.

Notes:
There are qualities of elasticity - there are no advantages (elastic - stingy).
Why they boyar him - they make him a boyar, a nobleman.
Prilog - increase in salary, bonus.
Hosts are public - public meetings.
Klob - club

And now - a word from the publisher of "Drone" himself:

“Idle talker”(1770) - only two issues of this monthly satirical magazine by Novikov were published. It began to be published instead of the closed publisher “Drone”. It continued the satirical line. But the satire here concerned literary and cultural phenomena. Here you can find attacks against Kheraskov, Chulkov, Lukin, V. Petrov. Novikov also criticizes the “Russian Universal Grammar”, the first version of the famous “Pismovnik”. In particular, he speaks out against the jokes contained therein. The “Vedomosti” section in the magazine is interesting. They are dedicated only to military-political and theatrical events. Moreover, not only satirical works are published here, but also positive ones. For example, in this section, the first professional theater reviews in the history of Russian journalism were published - about the play of the outstanding actor I. Dmitrievsky and about the production of Sumarokov’s tragedy “Sinav and Truvor”. In contrast to the negative heroes of satirical publications, “Pustomel” publishes the story “Historical Adventure” with positive heroes. In it, Novikov for the first time gives a positive program of upbringing and education in the national Russian spirit. This is a kind of sketch of his pedagogical program, which was later expressed in other Novikov publications - “Additions to the Moscow Gazette” and “Children’s Reading”.

"Wallet"(1774) - a new weekly satirical magazine, which was supposed to glorify ancient Russian virtues and, first of all, national dignity, and condemn noble gallomania and cosmopolitanism. 9 issues of the magazine were published. Its name is associated with the “purse” - a leather or taffeta bag in which the braid of a wig was placed. Therefore, the meaning of the title should have been explained to the reader in the first issue in the article “Transforming a Russian wallet into a French one,” but it was not published. Novikov’s idea was that the pursuit of foreign fashion ruins the nobles, spoils their morals and brings harm to Russia. The first issue of “Purse” contains a conversation between a dishonest and selfish Frenchman and a Russian, and then with a German who defends “Russian virtues.” Here is published an ode by A. Baibakov on the occasion of the victory over the Turkish fleet and the capture of the Bendery fortress in 1770. Next, an anonymous one-act idyllic play from peasant life “The Folk Game” is published - the kindest gentleman lives in perfect harmony with his serfs, takes care of them, teaches them to read and write , and they reciprocate. There is an opinion that its author was one of the courtiers and Novikov was forced to publish it, because a peasant war was going on in the country at that time. In addition, materials under the headings “Vedomosti” and “Izvestia” appear on the pages of the magazine; feuilletons and satirical portraits of specific people are published, whose names are not mentioned, but are easily guessed. Novikov compiles satirical dictionaries and satirical recipes. These genres help him not to ridicule abstract vices, but to attack vice with satire “on faces.” All materials in Novikov’s journals are written in clear, simple and natural language, close to colloquial literary speech.

Novikov disguises the most critically critical materials and mixes them with the publication of panegyric works.

The theme of the oppressed peasantry. “Excerpt from a trip to ***I***T***.”

Cycle of “Letters to Falaley”. The reverse side of serfdom is revealed - the corrupting influence of slavery on the nobles. (There is a controversy about who actually owns both of these works. Berkov believes that “Excerpt” was written by Radishchev, and “Letters to Falaley” by Fonvizin. But Bukharkin told us that both of these works belong to Novikov.)

"Drone" (1769-1770) - Novikov’s first satirical magazine. Conducted an irreconcilable polemic with “All sorts of things.” He became known for his poignant publications on peasant topics. The motto of “Drone” is symbolic: “They work, and you eat their work.” The name is no less eloquent. It symbolizes a certain collective image of the publisher of “All sorts of things” - a representative of the ruling noble class of society who lives idlely and richly, using the labor of others. Just like a real drone. In the very first issue, Novikov publishes his views on satire, opposite to those expressed by Catherine II in “All sorts of things” - “Criticism, written to the face, but in such a way that it is not open to everyone, can more correct the vicious.” The magazine's speeches were truly bold and topical. The publications are based on a natural feeling of humanity towards ordinary people, for whom no one dares to stand up. This determined the readership success of the publication. The circulation of each issue ranged from 750 to 1240 copies. The publication generated income because sold for five times its cost. This is a unique case in journalism at that time. The publisher widely uses various genres, including the genre of writing, in which, supposedly on behalf of the reader, he asks the magazine staff a topical or interesting question that requires an answer. This is the reason for speaking on the pages of the publication. These simple-minded letters allowed Novikov to write about bribery flourishing in various departments among officials, about the cruelties of landowners towards peasants, about the hopelessness of peasant life. Most of the publications are responses to the speeches of “Everything and everything”, polemics with this magazine, disagreement with its methods of covering problems and the choice of topics for publications. The highest magazine accused Novikov of lacking philanthropy, meekness and condescension, of trying to call weaknesses vices. Novikov wrote in response that many people cover up their vices with love of humanity, they made a caftan out of their love of humanity for vices, but these people are more likely to have a love of vice. Eradicating vices is a greater manifestation of philanthropy than indulging them. Using the example of peasants leaving a cow for their fellow man so that his children would not die of hunger, he shows that ordinary people are more humane than a landowner who indifferently refuses help to his serf. He ridicules fashionistas, dandies, idle people and writes with sympathy about commoners who have moral principles and the ability to work, about hardworking peasants. He criticizes the widespread approach, when positions out of three candidates are given not to the most capable and knowledgeable, but to the most well-born and noble. He ridiculed the vagueness of “All sorts of things,” reproached the author and publisher for his poor knowledge of the Russian language, and pretended that he did not know who was behind the magazine. In response, moralizing articles were published in the highest magazine. Novikov's social satire caused discontent in high circles and in 1770 the publisher had to tone down the critical intensity of his speeches. The new epigraph of the magazine spoke well about this: “Strict instruction is dangerous where there is a lot of atrocity and madness.” He informed readers that such a change was forced and published several of their dissatisfied letters due to the weakening of satire. And through the issue he announced the closure of the magazine, because he knew that he was prohibited from further publishing it. And “All sorts of things” stopped publishing in April 1770. On the last page of the issue, he anonymously announced the appearance of a new magazine - “Pustomelya”. The magazine was closed by decision of the empress.

The main ideas of the magazine: criticism of the class prejudices of the nobles; the idea of ​​the independence of a person’s mental qualities from social origin.

Emphasized and conscious democracy of beliefs. The variety of forms in which satire is embodied. Novelistic fiction (“The true story of the missing golden watch”).

"Painter" (1772) - a weekly satirical magazine similar to “Drone”. Circulation – about 1000 copies. Propaganda of educational ideas and the peasant theme constituted the main content of the magazine. Novikov tried to connect his speeches in the magazine with the new literary experiences of the empress, who now began to write moralizing plays of a rather low literary level. Praising the theatrical attempts of Catherine II, Novikov writes about his vision of the problems posed in them - that a vicious person in any rank is worthy of equal contempt, criticizes depraved acts and inveterate bad customs. In a word, she talks about social shortcomings in a completely different way than an empress could. And she had no choice but to take the praise at face value. She couldn’t argue that she meant something other than the desire to eradicate vices and shortcomings. The pages of the magazine published both laudatory “duty” articles and congratulatory poems by court poets. But among them, harsh articles were also published, exposing the morals of the nobility, depicting the difficult life of the peasants, their needs and grief. Novikov writes articles in the form of a dialogue between the Interlocutor and the Author about the current state of literature and journalism, in which, discussing the writers Nevpopad, Krivotolka and Moral Teacher, he criticizes contemporary writers who write tragedies, comedies and shepherd idylls. By these masks he means specific people - in particular, Lukin, Chulkov and Kheraskov. This style of presentation is very typical for the magazine. It is interesting and easy to understand. A number of publications were particularly poignant. This is, for example, “Excerpts from a Journey,” where the hardships of peasant life and the idle pastime of nobles are depicted. Authorship is attributed to Radishchev's father. To soften the impression of this publication, Novikov clarifies that respectable landowners should not take satire personally. The magazine also published satirical poems, for example, “Praise of the training stick,” which condemned officers who beat their soldiers, directed against the cane discipline imposed in the Russian army. After the peasant theme, which received the most detailed embodiment in “The Painter,” the second most important is the theme of education, the fight against gallomania (love of everything foreign, in particular, French) and the lack of culture of noble society. In addition to Novikov, the magazine published E. Dashkova, P. Potemkin, V. Ruban, D. Fonvizin, A. Radishchev, M. Sushkova, A. Fomin, F. Karzhavin and others. Starting from the third issue, “The Painter” was a book in two parts, and not a magazine divided into sheets. In 1773 the magazine was closed.

The publisher of the Truten magazine was Nikolai Ivanovich Novikov. After serving in the Collegium of Foreign Affairs, Novikov resigns and begins to engage in literary and publishing activities. "Truten" was Novikov's first magazine. The magazine “All sorts of things,” whose publisher was Catherine II’s secretary Kozitsky, and “Drone” differed in their views on the nature and objectives of satire. “All Things” slightly criticized the vices of people and rejected the topic of bribery. She condemns young girls who cross their legs, ridicules a loud voice, an abundance of furniture in a room or house. Novikov spoke out against such satire of the empress in “Trutn”. He defended combat satire, denouncing not vices, but their carriers. The difference in views on satire was revealed in lively debate: from issue to issue they challenged each other. Such magazines as “Mixture” and “Hell Mail” also took part in the controversy, which were on the side of “Drone”. "Drone" fought against police brutality (opposes the abuse of serfdom). Epigraph to the first part of “The Drone”: “They work, and you eat their work.” This is how Novikov portrays the serf-owners: Idiot - he is forced to use the air, the month, the sun, which the common people also use. And he believes that he must be exterminated; Recklessness - believes that serfs were created to work and fulfill needs; Gload - I am sure that slaves need “brutality and severe beatings” as food. In “A Recipe for Recklessness,” Novikov invites him to “look at the master’s and peasant’s bones twice every day until he finds the difference between the peasant and the master.” The theme of peasant lawlessness and landowner tyranny is revealed in “Copies from unsubscribes” in the genre of correspondence.

Novikov condemns the corruption of the court. Creates a satirical image of justice in the form of secretaries who eat away a rich merchant awaiting a judge's decision. He contrasts this with an honest and incorruptible commoner. In creating all these portraits, Novikov relied on Russian classicism - they are all carriers of one particular trait (the meaning of the names: Forgot - Honor, Krivodushin, Pravdolyubov, Nedum). Novikov ridicules the dandies, the daily occupation of one of whom is to show off in front of the mirror. But discontent on the part of the government began and he said goodbye to readers.

In April 1772, he began publishing the satirical magazine “Painter”. The main theme is the face of feudal tyranny. Anti-feudal satires - “Fragment of a Journey” and “Letters to Thalaley”. The “Excerpt” gives a picture of peasant slavery in the village of Ruined (“poverty and slavery met me everywhere in the form of peasants”). The landowners were the culprits for the ruin of the peasants - this is the traveler’s conclusion. The description of the village is as follows: “about twenty yards,” “the street is covered with dirt, mud and all kinds of uncleanness.” All people are in corvee labor. The author calls the village “the abode of crying.” The episode with three babies who are abandoned because their mothers are in corvee labor stands out. The traveler helps them and advocates for the enslaved. The cycle “Letters to Falaley” shows living figures of local nobles (“they work for us, and we flog them; if they become lazy, then we are equal” - the distribution of labor according to Trifon Pankratievich). There are articles in the magazine directed against bad education. The attacks on dandies and dandies continue. In the second year of publication, Zhivopiets was forced to soften its attacks, and in 1773 it closed.

In 1774, Novikov published the last of his magazines, “Wallet”. The subject of satire here is Gallomania (addiction to everything French). The writer did not have the opportunity to boldly expose the main vices of society - there was a peasant war under the leadership of Pugachev, and speaking in favor of the serfs could be considered as aiding the “rebels.”

38. I.I. Dmitriev is a fabulist.

Dmitriev Ivan Ivanovich - poet and fabulist. Served at court; under Paul I he was chief prosecutor of the Senate. under Alexander I - Minister of Justice. Dmitriev's literary activities are not of particular importance, although at one time he was very popular. In addition to lyrical poems and the usual court odes and messages for that time ("The Voice of a Patriot for the Capture of Warsaw", "Poems for the High Monarch's Grace", "Song for the Day of Coronation", etc.), Dmitriev wrote four books of fables (in his entire life Dmitriev wrote about 80 fables), which initially attracted attention. In them, he is one of the last representatives of that didactic stream in Russian noble literature, which was determined under Sumarokov. In addition, he was one of the first to try to instill elements of folk poetry into literature and wrote a number of songs in the “folk spirit”, one of which was very popular (“The blue dove is moaning, he is moaning day and night; his dear little friend has flown away for a long time.” etc.). Finally, Dmitriev was known both as a satirist and humorist, extremely superficial. In addition to epigrams, his satire “Other People's Interpretation”, directed against the pompous odopists of that time, whose goal was: “...a reward with a ring, often a hundred rubles, or friendship with a prince,” and the fairy tale “Fashionable Wife” (about a “fashionista” deceiving husband). Dmitriev's poetry is fueled by the psychological experiences of the middle-class nobility (motives of contemplation and melancholy, alienation from the world and craving for the patriarchal way of life). This mood, as well as Dmitriev's participation in the reform of poetry and literary language, brings Dmitriev closer to the leader of local sentimentalism, Karamzin ( Dmitriev and Karamzin were not only like-minded people, but also close friends). However, intimate lyrics are often drowned out in Dmitriev’s work by rehashes of court odes (“Liberation of Moscow”) and aristocratic poetry (“I saw a glorious palace”). The mixture of styles is explained by Dmitriev’s inability to resist these alien to literary traditions.

The fable genre was widely developed in the 18th century: the fables of Sumarokov, Maykov, Khemnitser, etc. However, it was Dmitriev who acquired the fame of an unrivaled Russian fabulist, the “Russian La Fontaine.” This name is broader than a simple indication of the literary sources of Dmitriev’s fables. La Fontaine's fables were translated by Russian poets before him, and in particular by Sumarokov. However, Sumarokov's fable can in no way be called La Fontaine's fable. Borrowing the plot from La Fontaine or other fabulists, Sumarokov develops it in a unique language manner that is fundamentally different from the original. For Sumarokov, according to the genre hierarchy of Russian classicism, the fable is a low genre. Deliberate rudeness, naturalism of language and images, an orientation towards a grotesque tale - these are the characteristic features of the fable of the Sumarokov school. In the poetry of sentimentalism, the interpretation of the fable as a low, crude genre disappears. The fable is included in the number of elegant, salon genres of “light poetry”, and La Fontaine’s fable becomes its example. The vast majority of Dmitriev’s fables are translations from La Fontaine or the fabulists of his school - Grécourt, Mercier, Arno and the somewhat isolated Florian (Dmitriev translates their quick plot into Russian customs - “The Oak and the Cane”, “The Old Man and the Three Young People”, “Two Doves” , “The Lion and the Mosquito”, etc.). But unlike Sumarokov’s fables, Dmitriev not only borrows the plot, but also strives to convey the stylistic features of the original. Dmitriev's fable is a typically La Fontaine entertaining, elegant narrative, peppered with witticisms and lyrical maxims from the author - the “storyteller.” In this sense, Dmitriev appeared to his contemporaries as a “Russian Lafontaine.” Among other features of La Fontaine's fable, Dmitriev retains the freedom of intonation and contrast of emotional and lyrical transitions of the original, but in different and essentially hostile stylistic forms to La Fontaine. In Dmitriev’s work, contrasts form within the fable stylistic layers that are striking in their opposition. Falling out of the general fable tone of casual chatter, they are determined by the nature of one or another emotional motive present in the original. Thus, the motives of love, decay, death, regardless of the situation and the person with whom they are associated, in the course of the fable plot invariably take on typical elegiac images and intonations.

The fable under his pen loses the direct moralizing and rude vernacular style that was previously characteristic of it. With Dmitriev, the narrator comes to the fore - smart, ironic, judging everything as a private person who does not know the absolute truth. The moral of the fable can be applied to himself (Ah! I often noticed this in myself, / That, while running stupidly, I ended up in another - Don Quixote).

His fables are largely aimed at condemning universal human vices. Lyrical digressions and the presence of a narrator gave the fable a sentimental character.

For example, in the fable “An Old Man and Three Young People,” elegiac motifs are woven into the fable plot. In the monologue of the old man addressed to the young, the theme of the fragility of everything earthly sounds:

Providence is not given to us to know,

Which of us did it judge?

The last one to look at the clear star!

Dmitriev's fables contain a wealth of intonations. Sometimes they turn into an elegant lyrical poem. His light satire is predominantly moralistic in nature; the main advantage of Dmitriev’s fables is the light language, free from Slavicisms, and the colloquial smoothness of the verse. The poetic language developed by Dmitriev contributed to the development of the Russian literary language.

39. The significance of F. Emin’s work in the history of the Russian novel.

About the life of F.A. Little is known about Emin. He was most likely born in Ukraine or Poland, from where he moved to Turkey, converting to Mohammedanism. He probably studied at the Kyiv Theological Academy. He himself loved to tell tall tales about himself (and people believed him). In the late 1750s, he came to the Russian envoy in London and called himself a “Turkish subject” Mohammed Emin, asking to be converted to the Orthodox faith. F. Emin was baptized in 1761 and sent to Russia. Here he became a teacher of foreign languages ​​and found patrons (Shuvalov, Panin, Orlov), whom he knew how to change in time.

He began publishing in 1763 and finished in 1769 (he died in 1770). F. Emin was quite a prolific writer and during his 9 years in St. Petersburg he wrote over 25 books (novels, histories, translations). The author did not deny that he was engaged in writing for the sake of money; he looked at literature as a profitable branch of industry. In 1763 alone, he published 4 novels, one of them in three volumes. In 1769, he published two magazines at once: the monthly “Hell Mail” (written exclusively by himself!) and the weekly “Mixture”. At the end of his life, he published 3 volumes of his “Russian History”, filled with fantastic information and references to non-existent books.

His unique philosophy F.A. Emin reveals in the novel “Fickle Fortune, or the Adventures of Miramond,” referring to Virgil and Horace, whom “poverty taught poetry.” The same idea (“money is our idols”) by F.A. Emin reveals in his adventurous and moral novels: “The City of Love”, “The Adventures of Themistocles”. F. Emin was one of the first to formulate the idea of ​​the Russian bourgeoisie: “Merchants are the soul of the state,” but “merchants should never be entrusted with any government of the fatherland” (about this proposal, it is worth making allowance for the time of writing textbooks).

Worldview position of F.A. Emina is contradictory. Despite the nobleman's strong ideological convictions, in some of his works he sympathetically portrays peasants. Including in the first Russian epistolary novel “Letters of Ernest and Doravra” (1766). This is a novel in letters, written in 4 volumes. “Letters...” is the first psychological sentimental novel, the style of which is characterized by “sensitivity”. “Letters of Ernest and Doravra” was written under the influence of Rousseau’s novel “The New Heloise” (1761). According to G.A. Gukovsky, it was a challenge to the classicism of Sumarokov, who had a negative attitude towards the rebel Rousseau. (By the way, Emin even released lampoons about Mr. Sumarokov, where he mentioned both his work and his personal life. In retaliation, Sumarokov made his opponent the prototype of the slanderer and atheist Herostratus in his comedy “Poisonous”) Unlike the work of Rousseau, Emin translates conflict from social to moral plane. Emin often resorts to philosophical, moral and moralizing arguments. The author does not strive to create a storyline, but to analyze the feelings of the main characters. There is no social acuity. Emin does not maintain the unity of concept and forces his hero (especially in the 2nd part) to write entire dissertations on moral and philosophical topics, thereby depriving the novel of “passionate psychological coloring.” Problems of education, religion and relationships between landowners and peasants are interpreted in a liberal-moderate spirit. According to Tatarinova and Gukovsky, artistically the novel is weak: the images are schematic, the language is not processed, there are too many descriptions of the characters’ feelings and their “primitiveness” (their experiences take up to a dozen pages). Comparing “New Heloise” and “Letters...”, Gukovsky comes to the conclusion that Emin’s novel is nothing more than a caricature of the Western version. This was an attempt to create a psychological novel.

Summary:

Poor nobleman Ernest fell in love with Doravra; he writes letters to her in which he confesses his feelings; She first answers jokingly, and then writes about mutual love. However, marriage between them is impossible: the different position of the heroes in society interferes - Ernest is poor and unofficial, Doravra is the daughter of a noble and wealthy nobleman. Ernest receives the position of secretary to the ambassador in France, and a career opportunity opens up before him. It would seem that the main obstacle has been eliminated, but suddenly Ernest receives an angry letter from Doravra, in which she reproaches him for deception: It turns out that Ernest’s wife has arrived in the city where Doravra lives. However, Ernest is not a deceiver; the fact is that he believed his wife was dead. Ernest invites Doravra to run away with him, she agrees, but the lovers’ plan is destroyed by Doravra’s father, who learned from Ernest’s wife about his daughter’s love; he forces Doravra to marry. Separated from his beloved and losing hope, Ernest talks about his experiences and thoughts, about various social phenomena to his friends - Hippolytus and Pulcheria. A few years later, Doravra comes to the city where Ernest lives to become Ernest’s mistress, but he does not want his beloved to fall; they break up again. Ernest becomes a writer, suffers persecution for his writings, but courageously defends the right to satire “on faces.” Doravra was widowed, but the lovers were not destined to unite: Doravra fell out of love with Ernest and remarried some young man. In his last letter to Hippolytus, Ernest exclaims: “But what does fate not do to mortals!” - and sadly notes: “My ardent love ended in very cold reasoning.”

40. Eastern story by I.A. Krylova "Kaib".

In the story "Kaib" we see Rousseauistic motifs characteristic of the young Krylov: happiness and virtue flourish away from the world, in a deep forest, in solitude. It is emphasized here that withdrawal from the world is not at all a noble idyll. Krylov exposes this same noble idyll in Kaib’s meeting with the shepherd. Instead of a happy Arcadian shepherd, he shows a real and, of course, Russian peasant, hungry, poor and not at all complacent. in this story, Krylov also exposes the odic lies of the nobility. The main theme of the story is the Russian autocracy of the times of Krylov. The oriental flavor and the transfer of the action to the east could no longer deceive anyone. In Kaiba, the issue of monarchy is brought to the fore.

"Kaib"( the genre can be defined as a “fairy tale,” but Gukovsky’s textbook gives “a parody of an idyll. This story traces the Rousseauistic motifs characteristic of the young Krylov: happiness and virtue flourish away from power, in solitude and tranquility. The main theme is autocracy and despotism. The issue of monarchy is brought to the fore: Krylov shows the rottenness of the system and the corruption of the elements of this system. The story “Kaib” was subsequently noted by Belinsky as an “unusually apt and evil” satire. In the image of Kaib himself, the eastern caliph, a caustic portrait of an “enlightened” sovereign is given, who in essence is a typical despot. It is enough to list Kaib’s “viziers” to be convinced of the courage of Krylov’s satire. These are Dursan - “a man of great merits”, the main one of which is that “his beard reached to his knees”; Oslashid is a “faithful Muslim”, the owner of a white turban, which gave him the right “to great degrees and honors”; Grabiley, who, although he was the son of a Chebotar, and having entered the “order service”, managed to “develop his abilities” and became “one of the most famous people equipped with ways to oppress the poor.” And the caliph himself, boasting of his enlightenment, rules according to the principle he himself expressed: “... to avoid disputes, he began his speeches like this: “Gentlemen! I want this and that; “Whoever has an objection to this can freely declare it: this very minute he will receive five hundred blows on the heels of an oxen, and then we will consider his voice.” Here one can see a poisonous hint of the hypocrisy of the empress herself, who covered up her despotism with false phrases about observing the laws. Krylov's democratic sympathies were also reflected in his hostile attitude towards noble sentimentalism. He ridiculed the embellishment of life and the sensitivity of sentimentalists who replaced a truthful image with a pastoral idyll. In the story “Kaib”, Krylov sneers at the caliph, who went to meet the “villagers”. Thinking of seeing the “blessed life” of the peasants, which he read about in idylls and eclogues, Kaib instead met “a dirty creation, tanned by the sun, covered with dirt.” The shepherd not only did not play the pipe, but, hungry, soaked the stale crust, and his wife went to the city to sell the last chicken.

In the narrative basis of "Kaiba" it is not difficult to detect all the plot elements of the "eastern story". The action develops according to the “travel” genre model. Being ignorant of the true state of affairs in the state, the monarch experiences inexplicable dissatisfaction with his entire way of life. He goes on a journey, learns about the plight of his people, regains his sight and becomes convinced that he was a bad ruler. Having returned, the monarch corrects the mistakes made earlier, becomes wise and fair. The characters in the story are created according to the type of mask images. The caliph is separated from the people by the walls of his palace and lives in an artificial world of illusion. His viziers-ministers and courtiers, flattering, selfish and narrow-minded people, lead an idle existence at the expense of the oppressed people. The poor worker suffers under the burden of care. The qadi, who is just and honestly performs his duty, is persecuted and unhappy. The narrative elements of a genre that has become traditional constitute the semantic layer of the work lying on the surface, while the content of Krylov’s story is not limited to the genre; the scheme familiar to the reader is used by the author to express his own literary and life position. Using Voltaire's techniques of satirical depiction of monarchical power, Krylov gives an ironic description of palace life. The real here is replaced by the apparent, the object itself is replaced by its copy or image. Kaib “did not allow learned people into the palace, but their images were not the last decoration of its walls”; “his poets were poor,” but the portraits depicted them in rich clothes, since the enlightened ruler “sought in every possible way to encourage science”; academicians “read him fluently” and were clearly inferior to parrots in eloquence; the calendar according to which the court lived was “composed of nothing but holidays.” Life in the palace follows fictitious rules; The caliph, having fun, rules the illusory world. The fate of the people living behind the walls of the palace depends not so much on the decrees issued by the caliph, but on the activities of ministers who take advantage of their human weaknesses. The despotism of power is represented in the story by images of viziers. The “divan” is headed by “a man of great merit,” Dursan, who “serves the fatherland with his beard,” and this is his main “dignity.” He is a supporter of the most stringent measures to enforce state law. In order to get the people to comply with any decree, in his opinion, one should only “hang the first dozen curious people.” “Descendant of Mohammed” and “faithful Muslim” Oslashid happily talks about power and law, without understanding or trying to understand their true purpose. He “without examining his rights, tried only to use them.” Oslashid's idea of ​​life in the state is based on religious dogma: he equates the will of the ruler with “the right of Mohammed himself,” “for whose slavery the whole world was created.” Grabiley, who grew up in the family of a shoemaker, personifies bureaucratic arbitrariness. He prospers because he learned to “tenderly hug someone whom he wanted to strangle; cry about those misfortunes of which he himself was the cause; by the way, he knew how to slander those whom he had never seen; attribute virtues to someone in whom he saw only vices.” Those whose direct purpose is to directly exercise power in the state pursue only selfish goals, they are cruel, stupid, hypocritical and selfish. Their evil behavior is encouraged by the monarch. Evilly ridiculing the courtiers, the author changes his intonation when talking about the ruler himself. The caliph knows the true value of his advisers, so he makes all decisions individually, without allowing discussion and disputes. He, like the author-narrator, understands how important balance and stability are for the existence of a state, therefore “he usually placed one wise man among ten fools,” because he was sure that smart people are like candles, too many of which “can cause a fire.” (361). The “Eastern ruler” does not accept hasty, untested decisions, testing the firmness of the intention of the vizier who risked declaring his dissenting opinion “with five hundred blows of an oxen on the heels.” The author agrees with his hero that “we need viziers whose minds would not start anything without the consent of their heels.” Maintaining the general ironic tone of the narrative, Krylov uses the image of Kaib to express his ideas regarding state power. The image of the monarch, as the analysis of the text shows, is included in the sphere of philosophical irony. The story uses the traditional Russian literature of the 18th century. the technique of “dialogizing” the author’s speech, which undoubtedly leads to the expansion of the semantic field of the work. A certain fictitious image of a “historian” is introduced into the text, who sincerely admires the imaginary merits of the reign of the “great caliph.” The “historian’s” judgments in the author’s retelling acquire the opposite meaning to the original one, and the “dialogization” of the author’s speech leads to a combination of obvious antitheses. An opposition “then - now” arises that does not require resolution: the skepticism characteristic of the representative of the new century is directly opposed to the idealization of the past by the “historian”. The author addresses this opposition more than once, but each time his comparison is not in favor of the “enlightened age.” The patriarchal structure is attractive to the narrator for its stability, while the new century, in which the will of each person has the opportunity to influence the world, has lost this stability. It is the changing nature of irony that makes it possible to reveal the author’s true attitude to the depicted phenomena of life and assumes the evaluative nature of the narrative. In the field of “absolute synthesis of absolute antitheses” (F. Schlegel), the author, the “historian” and the hero of the story meet. The description of the courtiers and the entire palace life reveals a sharply negative attitude of the author, while in the depiction of the central character the accusatory tone is replaced by a sympathetic and ironic one. Kaib is young and does not yet have an established worldview. He looks at the world with the help of mirrors donated by the sorceress, “which have the gift of showing things a thousand times more beautiful than they are,” and believes that everything around him was created for his pleasure. The young man is entertained by the ugliest manifestations of servility and rivalry reigning at court. At the same time, any impulses of evil will are completely alien to him, he does not wish or do anything bad to anyone - existence in the world of illusion is simply convenient and temporarily pleasant. The feigned well-being of palace life became for the caliph a kind of continuation of Scheherazade’s tales, which he believed more “than Alkoran, because they deceived incomparably more pleasantly.” Kaib is quite educated, among his books are “a complete collection of Arabic tales bound in morocco” and “a translation of Confucius”; he knows not only the tales of Scheherazade and Alkoran, but also reads “idyls and eclogues”. As it turned out, this is not enough to be a good ruler and a happy person. Court life, organized according to the rules of rational illusion, soon creates a feeling of incompleteness and gives rise to unconscious desires. All the ways available to a hero endowed with unlimited power and wealth to feel happy were tested by him, but did not allow him to get rid of the inexplicable emptiness. The soul does not respond to the artificial, memorized greetings and caresses of the lovely inhabitants of the seraglio. Admiration from the first victories in a war started for the sake of entertainment gives way to melancholy, “and he looked, not without envy, that his half-naked poets felt more pleasure in describing its abundance than he did in tasting it.” It turns out that there is something in a person that does not fit into logically verified scientific schemes. A wonderful meeting with a sorceress pushes the hero to actively search for the true, and not fictitious, meaning of life, to find real, not illusory, bliss. The appearance of a fairy in the caliph's palace is quite natural and artistically plausible. Let us note that the intervention of the fairy-tale character in the action of the story is limited only to this episode, and this intervention concerns not so much the development of the plot action as it relates to the internal dynamics of the image of the central character. Having set off on a journey, the hero ceases to be a ruler and becomes just a man. From this moment on, the story of the “epiphany” of the autocratic despot turns into a plot of the search for happiness, traditional for folk art, not only for literature. “Having laid aside all the pomp,” Kaib is faced with a life that does not at all depend on his will and imaginary power. Subsequently, Krylov builds a narrative contrary to the logic of the “oriental story” genre. Elements of parody arise, aimed at literature in which “the idea does not grow from the life itself, but is introduced into it.” In the very first minutes of the journey, the “great caliph” unexpectedly encountered the inconveniences of practical life: “It was at night; the weather was quite bad; the rain poured so hard that it seemed to threaten to wash away all the houses to the ground; lightning, as if for a laugh , shining occasionally, showed only the great caliph that he was knee-deep in mud and surrounded everywhere by puddles, like England by the ocean; thunder deafened him with its impetuous blows." The description of the night storm, executed in an “Ossianic”, solemnly sublime and melancholy tone, by the time the story was written, had already become a cliche in sentimental-romantic literature, where it served as a means of expressing the sublime passions of the hero. Krylov’s description is prosaic, and the mention of England, the birthplace of sentimentalism and pre-romanticism, Jung, Thomson, Macpherson, in an ironic context is clearly polemical. The raging elements force Kaib to seek shelter in a poor hut. The description of the owner and the interior of the hut also reveals a symbolic image common in poetry of that time, expressing the artist’s opposition to society. Yu.V. Mann interpreted this opposition as “a kind of psychological flight or ... moral refusal of the generally accepted and generally accepted” and classified it as “a harbinger of a romantic conflict.” Deliberately reducing the image of the poet, Krylov is ironic, showing the weakness of his conventionally poetic idea of ​​the world. The fictional, aestheticized world of Krylov’s contemporary literature is presented in the story as akin to the illusory well-being of palace life rejected by Kaib. A meeting with the “odopist”, and later with the shepherd, convinces the unknown monarch that truth is the most important and indispensable condition of human life, the successful activity of the ruler, and artistic creativity. “This is truly ungodly!” - exclaims the wandering caliph, mentally comparing the idyllic images of shepherd life known to him with the pitiful image of the poor man he met along the way. Lies are “godless” and unnatural, no matter in what form they exist. The use of improperly direct speech in this part of the narrative imparts lyricism to the author’s ironic tone. The narrator agrees with his hero and shares his indignation. Having turned into a private person, as night falls Kaib experiences the fear that is natural for a lonely wanderer and persistently seeks shelter for himself. At the cemetery, he thinks about life and death, about the frailty of earthly glory and about what needs to be done to leave a long and good memory of himself. An unusual situation and a special state of mind lead to the appearance of a ghost, “the majestic shadow of some ancient hero,” “his height towered until then, as long as light smoke can rise in the quiet summer time. The color of the varnish surrounding the moon, such was his pale face. Eyes he was like the sun when, at its sunset, it descends into thick fogs and, changing, becomes covered with a bloody color... His hand was burdened with a shield emitting a dim light, similar to that emitted by rippling water at night, reflecting the dead rays of pale stars." . Masterfully using the technique of artistic stylization, creating the illusion of a romanticized image, Krylov step by step dissuades the reader of the seriousness of his intentions. The fear experienced with the onset of night turns out to be not at all connected with the sublime and mysterious world of Jung’s “Nights”; Kaib simply does not want to “be eaten by hungry wolves.” The appearance of the ghost also finds a natural explanation: he dreams and communicates thoughts that came to the hero’s mind under the influence of everything he experienced at the grave of a once glorious, and now forgotten warrior. However, the tendency towards the sublime and mysterious, unusual and inexplicable, characteristic of pre-romantic thinking, is not completely denied, despite the constant irony of the narrator’s tone. It is the night spent in the cemetery and all the semi-mystical surroundings associated with it that help Kaib understand important things. He understands that in the world of material values, each living person needs very little, “two pounds of bread per day and three arshins of earth on the bed during life and after death.” But, most importantly, the hero comes to the conviction that “the right of power is only to make people happy.” Having become just a man, Kaib sympathizes with the poor shepherd, regrets the fate of the once famous, but now forgotten hero. He understands that the reason for oblivion was that all the exploits of the ancient warrior were aimed at destruction. Having gotten rid of the illusion of his greatness, the caliph learned to notice the beauty of nature and appreciate the simplicity and naturalness of feelings. Without hesitation, he comes to the aid of a strange girl looking for something in the grass. “It was necessary to look then at the greatest caliph, who, almost crawling, was looking in the grass, perhaps for some kind of toy to please a fourteen-year-old child,” notes the ironic author. This natural impulse to take specific action for the sake of good is rewarded. The hero learned for the first time in his life what love is. Talking about the first meeting of a young man and a girl who fell in love with each other forever, the author emphasizes that true feeling does not correlate with reason, its expression is “joy, haste, impatience.” The author again resorts to the technique of improperly direct speech, the narrative acquires melody and lyrical emotion: “What a pleasant burden he felt when Roxana’s breasts touched his chest! What heat spread through all his veins when innocent Roxana, holding herself back from falling, grabbed him with hers hands, and he, supporting her light and thin figure with his own, felt the strong trembling of her heart.” Love fills the void that previously existed in Kaiba’s soul, and this happens only when he gains new experience of life and is freed from a false understanding of its values. True bliss and the highest wisdom of life are acquired by the hero independently, without the participation of a fairy sorceress. He finds happiness as a result of his empirical experience, following his natural essence, surrendering to feelings and following his innate moral sense. Kaib realized that his purpose was to do good, that earthly glory was short-lived, and that autocracy was lawless and selfish. Only after this did the soulless despot transform into a reasonable and virtuous ruler. Upon careful examination of the text, it becomes clear that the story of Kaib only superficially repeats the well-known plot. The transformation of the hero occurs through intense mental work. The experience and love acquired during the journey changes his behavior and attitude towards life. At the same time, the reader has no doubt that the essence of his human nature has remained unchanged. The truth of life, extracted from its depths, is for Krylov the most important content of literature. That is why the straightforward didacticism of the “Oriental story” is ridiculed, the world of “ode-writers” built on the rules of “imitation of decorated nature” and the “elegant” fiction of idyllic poetry are criticized. The naivety of the mystical forms of comprehension of the ideal essences of existence characteristic of pre-romanticism is shown. The superficial rationalism and speculative progressiveness of power based on book knowledge are subjected to satirical exposure. Krylov’s ironic combination of essentially opposite life phenomena leads to the denial of the rationally one-sided idea of ​​​​the laws of existence that underlies the educational “Eastern story”. He also does not accept the other extreme - the denial by Masonic Gnosticism of the possibility of a person’s free preference for good and truth. Following a stable literary tradition turns out to be only external and leads to an “explosion of the genre from within.” Of course, Krylov “laughed at the naive faith of the enlighteners in the ideal sovereign.” But he saw the possibility of approaching the ideal, which is given not by “head” delights, but by the natural participation of a morally healthy person in practical life. Krylov's story is about things that are important to the author, and therefore the story about Kaib's wanderings takes on an emotionally expressive form. At the same time, the lyrical is combined in the story with philosophical content. However, the philosophy of the author of the story is alien to book wisdom; it directly goes back to the folk, practical knowledge of life. The use of fairy-tale storytelling techniques, the assignment of the action of the story to an indefinite, long-past time, a conventional oriental flavor - everything gives the image of the main character mythological features. It is extremely specific and at the same time embodies the most essential thing - the combination of personal, spiritual and social hypostases. The author's irony about human weaknesses is devoid of sarcastic indignation. One can only smile in surprise at what happened in time immemorial, somewhere in a distant eastern kingdom, and even with the participation of a good sorceress. But a fairy tale is not only a “lie”, but also a “lesson”; it contains a figurative and mythologized expression of natural entities that are not subject to time, the knowledge that we now call substantial. Thus, the positive content of the story is easily revealed from the text, which is stylistically built entirely on irony.

41. Genre of the heroic-comic poem. Poem by V.I. Maykov "Elisha, or the irritated Bacchus."

In French literature of the 17th century. There were two types of comic poems: burlesque, from the Italian word burla - joke, and hero-comic. The most prominent representative of burlesque in France was the author of the “Comic Novel” Paul Scarron, who wrote the poem “Virgil Inside Out”. As an ardent opponent of classic literature, he decided to ridicule Virgil's Aeneid. To this end, he coarsens the language and characters of the work. The poem was a resounding success and caused many imitations. This caused indignation among the head of French classicism, Boileau, who in “The Art of Poetry” condemned burlesque as a rough, vulgar genre. He wrote a heroic comic poem “Naloy”, where low matter was presented in a high syllable. The fight between two clergymen over the place where the lectern should stand was described in high style and Alexandrian verse.

The appearance of burlesque and hero-comic poems in Russia was not a sign of the destruction of classicism. This genre was legitimized by Sumarokov in his “Epistole on Poetry.” Sumarokov himself did not write a single comic poem, but his student Vasily Ivanovich Maykov (1728-1778) did.

Maikov owns two heroic poems - “The Ombre Player” (1763) and “Elisha, or the Irritated Bacchus” (1771). In the first of them, the comic effect is created by the fact that the adventures of the card player are described in a high, solemn style. The game itself is compared to the Battle of Trojans. Card figures act as gods.

“Elisha” enjoyed immeasurably greater success. The originality of the poem lies primarily in the choice of the main character. This is not a mythological character, not a major historical figure, but a simple Russian peasant, coachman Elisha. His adventures are emphatically rude and even scandalous. They begin in a tavern, where Elisha destroyed the entire drinking house. Then they continue in a workhouse for depraved women, in which he starts an “affair” with the head of this institution. Elisha's last adventure was his participation in a fight between coachmen and merchants, after which he was arrested as a runaway peasant and turned into a soldier.

The poem was strongly influenced by folklore. In everyday fairy tales, the image of a resourceful artisan triumphing over rich and eminent offenders and entering into a love affair with their wives has long been popular. The famous invisibility hat, which helps the hero in difficult times, has been transferred from a folk tale. In the description of wall-to-wall fights one hears the epic about Vasily Buslaev. The author even used its language. But Maikov did not create an epic, not a heroic epic, but a funny, amusing poem. “To exhaust” the “readers of the guts” - this is how the poet himself formulated his task.

In numerous comic situations, the author showed truly inexhaustible inventiveness: the hero’s stay in a workhouse, which he first mistook for a nunnery, a love rivalry with an old corporal, the appearance of Elisha in an invisible hat in the farmer’s house, and much more. The comic effect in the description of fights and love affairs of the hero is enhanced by the use of a solemn style drawn from the arsenal of the epic poem. Laughter causes a discrepancy between the “low” content of the poem and the “high” epic form in which it is clothed. Here Maikov is a worthy successor to Boileau. Thus, the first song begins with the traditional “sing” and a brief summary of the object being chanted. The narrative itself, in the spirit of Homer's poems, was repeatedly interrupted by reminders of the change of day and night. Fist fights with flattened noses, bitten off ears, torn off sleeves, burst ports are likened to ancient battles, and their participants are like the ancient heroes Ajax, Diomedes, etc.

The originality of Maykov's poem lies in the fact that he inherited the techniques not only of Boileau, but also of Scarron, whose name is repeatedly mentioned in Elisha. From Scarron's poem comes another type of comic contrast: refined heroes commit rude, ridiculous actions (Pluto feasts with the priests at the funeral, Venus debauchs with Mars, Apollo chops wood with an ax, maintaining the rhythm of either iambic or trochee).

Created in the era of classicism, Maykov’s poem was perceived as the enrichment of this movement with another genre. The hero-comic poem expanded the idea of ​​the artistic possibilities of the poem genre and showed that it allows only high historical, but also modern, even comic content.

42. The genre of epigram in Russian literature of the 18th century. (M.V. Lomonosov, A.P. Sumarokov).

Epigram (ancient Greek ἐπίγραμμα “inscription”) is a small satirical poem ridiculing a person or social phenomenon.

Initially, an epigram was a dedicatory inscription on statues, altars and other objects dedicated to the gods, and on tombstones (see epitaph). Gradually, thematic varieties of epigrams were formed: sententious-didactic, descriptive, love, table, and satirical. The epigram was distinguished from epic forms of poetry by its brevity and a clearly expressed subjective attitude to an event or fact. The epigram was written in elegiac distich, later in iambic and other meters. Plato's thoughts were expressed in the form of epigrams, Sappho wrote epigrams about the bitterness of early loss, Anacreon - about the fun at the feast. Masters of epigrams include Simonides of Keos, Asclepiades, Meleager. The heyday of the epigram in Greek literature was the work of the Hellenistic poets of the 3rd century BC. e. - 1st century AD e. (which formed the core of the so-called “Palatine Anthology” in 16 books), in the Roman - the satirical work of Martial (1st century AD). The traditions of the ancient epigram continued in Byzantine literature and in the Latin literature of the Middle Ages and the Renaissance, and were later revived occasionally.

In new European poetry

Martial's epigrams were thematically close to Juvenal's satires. The modern understanding of the epigram as a short mocking poem, usually built on the contrast of gradual exposition and an unexpected conclusion, the final “sharpness” (pointe), goes back to Martial’s legacy. This kind of epigram developed in French poetry of the 16th - 17th centuries. The heyday of the epigram in European literature is considered to be the 18th century (Voltaire, J.B. Rousseau, G.E. Lessing, in Russia - A.P. Sumarokov). In parallel, the epigram developed, representing a direct response to topical events, often political. In addition to those mentioned, masters of sharp satirical epigrams include J. de La Fontaine and P. D. E. Lebrun in France, R. Burns in England, and H. Heine in Germany.

Epigrams were already written by Simeon of Polotsk and Feofan Prokopovich; satirical epigrams, original and transcriptions, belong to A. D. Kantemir, in the second half of the 18th century - V. K. Trediakovsky, M. V. Lomonosov, A. P. Sumarokov and other poets. With N. M. Karamzin and his followers (V. A. Zhukovsky, V. L. Pushkin), the epigram acquired a salon character and became closer to the varieties of album poems.

When is love without legs? How to go

From a dear friend, telling him: “I’m sorry!”

N. M. Karamzin. Legs.

In the 19th century, epigrams were not only a means of exposing vices and human weaknesses, but also a weapon of literary and socio-political struggle. Among the outstanding epigrammatists of the first three decades of the 19th century are A. S. Pushkin, S. A. Sobolevsky, E. A. Baratynsky, P. A. Vyazemsky. A. S. Pushkin, for example, wrote both satirical epigrams (on A. A. Arakcheev, F. V. Bulgarin, A. N. Golitsyn) and epigrams that continue the ancient Greek tradition (“Movement”, “Curious”).

Epigram means inscription in Greek. 2,800 years ago, this was the name given to the dedicatory text on gifts to the gods (on shields, vases and other utensils). A little later, the ancient Greeks invented a type of epigram - an epitaph, a gravestone inscription that, as now, provided brief information about the deceased person. The shorter the text, the easier the work of the carver, who worked on hard material, mainly stone. Both love and sorrow had to be expressed in a few words. Thus, being laconic in form and capacious in content, the epigram entered classical literature. The main condition of the canon is the expression of one single thought, and always with an original ending! This peculiar, unexpected denouement of the poem was called “clause” in Latin, “pointe” in French, and “sol” in Russian!

At first the European epigram was philosophical, later moralizing, but with the decline of morals it became more and more satirical. The indignation and sarcasm of the artists was cast into a classical form and honed in skill. Until the 14th century, epigrams were mostly written in Latin. And from the 16th century sharp poetic thoughts appeared in Italian, French, Spanish, English, Polish.

In Russia, the ground for the epigram was prepared by folklore and such genres as disgraceful skits (as theatrical performances were previously called), ditties, nursery rhymes, joke songs, caustic proverbs and jokes, such as “life was fun, but there was nothing to eat”, “good a stump on spring day, but everything is a stump,” “and pockmarked, but God’s servant. And smooth, but disgusting”, “begs humbly, stepping on the throat”, “it’s better to die in the field than in a woman’s hem”, “Fili had them, they drank at Fili’s, and they beat Fili.”

During the advent of writing in Russia, elements of the epigram appeared everywhere, even in the serious genre of the “accusatory word,” which was rooted in the tradition of the Byzantine teacher’s word.

The Russian epigram ridiculed idolatry, sorcery, belief in the “bird fly”, lawless dancing (ritual dances preserved from the pre-Christian faith), among human vices - “drunkenness”, love of gold, slander, malice, lying, fornication, etc.

In the 17th century, during the Baroque era, the socio-historical situation was ripe for elegant satire. Fables and epigrams were translated into Russian, Russian wits mastered the form and theorized the style.

In the 18th century, the Russian epigram can already be spoken of as an independent genre. And, as always, the Russians had a question: what content should such a capacious form serve? Feofan Prokopovich, an associate of Peter I, a Ukrainian by nationality, who knew Latin, rhetoric, poetics and literary theory well, believed that the epigram was not a trifle, but a benefit to the Fatherland. He considered the “curious” verses that were fashionable at that time – palindromes or “crawfish poems” – useless, and raised the epigram to the heights of political sound. His deadly sarcasm gave rise to epigrams of a highly social nature.

His follower Antioch Cantemir, a translator of French and the founder of satirical satire, passed the baton of the new poetic system to Trediakovsky and Lomonosov. With their help, the genre grew from the ancient canon, reached the next level and began to develop in a pan-European way.

A.P. Sumarokov, an aristocrat and nobleman, filled with indignation and sarcasm, took over the baton in the middle of the 18th century. Despite his high position, he stigmatized vice in any guise. More than a hundred epigrams ridicule the bones, chicanery and bribery of colleagues in the privileged class.

G.R. Derzhavin, I.I. Khemnitser, V.V. Kapnist, the authors of risky epigrams on court intrigues and high-ranking officials, were the first to ridicule specific people, and not social vices. Usually in the era of Russian classicism, the heroes of epigrams bore “speaking surnames”: Khmelnikov is a drinker, Skryagin is stingy, Maralov is a mediocre writer. At the turn of the 18th – 19th centuries, the epigram became more lively and caustic, like life itself. Such verses were no longer printed and were passed on from mouth to mouth, and the most successful ones were published in handwritten collections. At the same time, similar in spirit satirical and vaudeville “couplets” arose.

With the advent of romanticism and sentimentalism, the epigram received a deeper philosophical meaning and expressive content.

“...more faces than heads; and there are even fewer souls” N.M. Karamzin

The Russian epigram took off rapidly when Pushkin touched it. He adopted the entire arsenal of techniques accumulated before him and, having mastered the poetic form literally from childhood, created sharp, combative, deep and caustic poems. For the first time, he began to find semantic consonances between the surnames and the negative character traits of the hero: the pugnacious journalist Kachenovsky, by association with a poker, becomes Kochergovsky, the opportunist Bulgarin is compared to a weather vane and is called Flugarin, and for his nostalgia - Vidocq Figlyarin. Epigrams-portraits, for which Pushkin suffered, were his most brilliant success.

S.A. Sobolevsky, E.A. Baratynsky, P.A. Vyazemsky elevated the Russian epigram to the art of instant, lightning-fast exposure of the base essence of a character, thereby, probably, creating a kind of proven immunity from the public decline of morals.

- DRONE.

It was published not only in 69, but existed until April 27, 1770. N.I. Novikov (1744-1818). Came from a noble family, attended a gymnasium at Moscow University, served in the Izmailovsky Regiment. In 1767 he took part in the meetings of the Commission for the drafting of the New Code - a protocol keeper. At 68 he leaves military service. In 1770 - holds the position of translator at the College of Foreign Affairs. In 1773 he finally resigns. Wants to re-read all journalistic works.

The drone is a slacker who doesn't know what to do. Considers three types of activity: military, civil and court. He evaluates them critically, especially the last one. Question: what am I needed for in society? Words by Sumarokov. He believes that he can be useful by publishing the works of other authors.

Issue 19 of the magazine “All sorts of things”. "Letter of Afinogen Perochinov." A letter against criticism and satire in general. He offers to give it up. First he tries to reason with literary methods. Afinogen suggests fighting criticism. 4 requirements: 1) never call weakness a vice; 2) maintain philanthropy in all cases: 3) do not think that perfect people exist; 4) ask God to give mercy. This is a program to soften criticism. A tough postscript: two more rules, not so loyal - 5) don’t talk to anyone about something you don’t understand; 6) so that no one thinks that he alone can fix the whole world.

Many believed that Catherine was trying to close Drone. In issue 5 of “The Drone,” under the signature “Pravdolyubov,” Novikov reproaches Catherine for indulging in vice. He believes that the one who helps correct vices is more humane. Reproaches for poor knowledge of the language. Novikov attacks noble morals, reproaches them for their contempt for everything Russian and their passion for foreignness. Respectfully mentions the commoners.

In 1970, Novikov realized that he needed to change the tone of his satire. He even changes the epigraph again to the words of Sumarokov: “Strict instruction is dangerous where there is a lot of atrocity and madness.” He emphasized that he understood the danger of his attacks. In 1970, Pravdolyubov was demonstratively expelled. The next editorial note is that his letters will no longer be published. The magazine attacks flirts, serious topics disappear. Essentially, the nature of the criticism was as Catherine wanted. The magazine has become discolored. Circulation drops from 1200 to 750 copies. Novikov published letters allegedly from readers that he wrote himself. Comic pseudonyms: “the one who wrote” and “your servant, you won’t guess who.” Masking one's own position as the reader's. Novikov himself writes that 4 more such reader letters have been received.

In the final issue, Novikov writes: “Against my wishes, I say goodbye to you” - administrative pressure. But there are no official documents confirming the closure. The “Drone” of 1970 did not interest the reader that much. He fulfilled his mission - to express the opposition. Sundries also closed, before Drone.

Fonvizin, the famous translator and sinologist Alexey Leontievich Leontiev, apparently participated in the magazine. Vasily Maykov, Fedor Alexandrovich Emmin.

- Idle talker.

Only two numbers. At the end of April, “Drone” ended. In July, "Pustomela" appears. But Novikov acted through a figurehead. The magazine is registered in the name of von Fock. In the first book of “Pustomeli” Novikov set the goal of creating a positive image of a Russian hero. It had to be the young man Dobroheart. But the development of the image failed - I didn’t have time. The first examples of theater reviews in Russia. Theater life. Number two - 2 materials led to death. 1- translator Leontyev “The Testament of Yungjen, the Chinese Khan, to his son.” The material is presented as a translation from Chinese. Dedicated to the duties of a ruling person. Trend: camouflage. 2 - Fonvizin’s poem “Message to my servants.” The spirit of freethinking. The magazine was closed without explanation. Circulation 500 copies.

- Magazine “Painter”.

Catherine has already twice tried to lead public opinion: a commission and a magazine. He is trying to use another means - theater. In the 70s, Catherine decided to take up drama. In 1771 he wrote 5 comedies; in 1772 they appeared on the stage of the court theater. The artistic level is low. Edifying character. Makes fun of gossip and vices - a continuation of the magazine's abstract satire. She fiercely attacked noble liberals. Russia has a wonderful government, but it is being hampered by liberals. The comedies were not successful.

Taking advantage of the fact that these comedies appeared, from mid-April 1772 Novikov published the weekly satirical magazine “Zhivopiets”. It was published until June 1773. For a long time it was not clear how it was allowed. But it turned out that Catherine secretly allowed everyone to publish magazines in 1969. Tuzov’s testimony about this has been preserved. Apparently, such permission was given for one year, and then the journal could be closed. In Russia there have always been opportunities to bypass censorship. For example, if a text was once published, it could later be freely republished, even if it was banned.

Novikov dedicates the magazine to Catherine, or more precisely, to the unknown writer of the comedy “Oh, Time.” Nature of the call. More loyal character. But Novikov attacks various writers, including those who were patronized by Catherine. At first the circulation was 600, then it grew. Well received. In one of the first issues the peasant theme is raised. He performed under his own name. The material was called “Excerpt from a trip to *** I*** T***.” Some believe it means "Publisher of the Drone". The authorship of this passage is difficult to establish. The second version belongs to the son of Alexander Radishchev, Pavel, who claims that the author is his father. IT traveled through Russian villages for three days. He sees nothing good: unplowed fields, crop failure - he attributes this to the poor care of the landowners. The main place of stay is the village of Ruined. The text is written briefly but succinctly. The principle of artistic laconicism is characteristic of this passage and of the entire work of Novikov and his magazine. The material sparked discussion. An excerpt from “An English Walk” is published in one of the next issues. Written to soften the previous material - number 13. Issue 14 continues the journey. It was different from the first part - ordinary satire, carriers of vices, abstract satire. In opposition to these vicious people, peasants were placed. The description of this passage ends with a mention of the village of Blagopoluchnaya, which the author was allegedly told about. “English Walk” prepares for the second part. In issue 15 - Falalei, a series of letters to him, also a peasant question. Again the genre of writing. "Letter from a district nobleman to his son." Fired for bribes, takes it out on the peasants. Trifon Pankratievich. Criticism of ignorance. Issues 23 and 24 continue with letters from mother and uncle. P.N. Berkov argued that these letters belonged to Fonvizin.

Another important topic is gallomania. Theme of enlightenment. Novikov said that nobles who did not undergo proper education would be bad servants of the state. Number 4 - characters Shchegolikha and Volokit. These are continuous characters, moving from issue to issue. In issue 9, Goldfinch prints a letter. Special jargon - with French inclusions. The dandy woman asks the publisher to create a women's fashion dictionary. Trend: dictionary genre. Such a dictionary is published in issue 10. The title “Experience of a fashionable dictionary of a dandy dialect” - words starting with the first two letters of the alphabet.

Novikov adheres to the line of “Drone” - a specific satire. Denunciation of social, not moral evil. Novikov is growing: more techniques, more subtle psychological characteristics of his characters. The author's narration is interspersed with statements from the characters themselves. The principle of typing. Genre originality: genre of writing. The effect of credibility.

In the 2nd year of life, the “Painter” fades, just like the “Drone”. In 1973, strange materials and translations were sometimes published. At the end of June 1973 it closes without explanation to the reader. From June 8 to September 2, 1774. Novikov's latest satirical magazine. Novikov was interested in history. “Ancient Russian Vifliofika” - published after “Painter”. This scientific publication publishes ancient written documents. Catherine assisted: she gave subsidies, through her secretary she provided various historical information and allowed the use of archives. Novikov says that he publishes this magazine to lead the nobility away from Gallomania and return to their roots. He did not receive permission for this magazine, he asks Kozitsky to bring the first issue to Catherine. On issue 9 Novikov writes: “End of the wallet.” Apparently, Catherine belatedly did not approve of him. “DRV” and “Wallet” simultaneously struggled with gallomania.

The magazine is primarily concerned with the positive. He intended to glorify ancient Russian virtues and criticize cosmopolitanism. Tries to criticize reactionary phenomena.

In addition to its direct meaning, a wallet can also mean a jacket or leather bag in which the braids of wigs were placed. Hint: a lot of money is spent on following French fashion. He promised to explain the title in the article.

The central target of the criticism is the Chevalier de Mansonge (from the French for "lie"). He came to Russia to teach children, although in his homeland he was a hairdresser.

In issue 9, “Ode to Russia” by Baibakov appears. The sole purpose of this ode is to try to save the magazine. Circulation unknown. The history of Novikov's journals shows that in the 18th century it was very difficult to express oppositional opinions. Following the principles proclaimed by Peter the Great - clarity, brevity, respect for language. Two themes - peasantry and gallomania. Special style: artistic laconicism. In general, concise nature, concentration. Epistolary genre. I tried to move journalism away from dry academicism. The desire to bring the language of magazines closer to colloquial speech. Weekly. In April 1779, Novikov leased the printing house of Moscow University for 10 years. Novikov also rented the Moskovskie Vedomosti newspaper and raised it. The printing house was dying, Novikov revived it. Kheraskov was also a Freemason - thanks to this connection he was able to get a printing house. Begins to update equipment, employees, fonts. By 1985, the number of printed titles reached 400. Special “Novikov Book Shops” were opened, not only in Moscow. At the end of 1779, a Friendly Scientific Society was created around Novikov, mainly made up of Freemasons - Schwartz, Trubetskoy, etc. First of all, they contributed money to the Society Fund. Seminaries were opened: pedagogical, philological, medical, etc.

In 1784, Novikov created a printing company. Participants are shareholders. They open pharmacies, etc., invest a lot of money, and create a printing house with up to 20 printing presses.

Before Novikov, the circulation of Moskovskiye Vedomosti was 500-600, in the 80s - 4000 copies. Many writers collaborated and created a translation seminary. Seriously worked with personnel. Structurally restructures the Moskovskie Vedomosti newspaper. Previously, it was mainly translations, now it is Russian news. Establishing a network of applications, many of them were practical in nature. From 1780 to 1789 - “Economic store”. Journal application. Designed primarily for villagers. The editor of the magazine was the landowner-agronomist Bolotov.

From January to December 1781 - “Moscow monthly publication”. To a large extent a continuation of "Morning Light", as well as articles of a political, geographical, historical nature. There was a political department, similar to a satirical magazine. The letter “On Sovereigns” is thinly veiled. About the sovereign of the masculine gender, but it is clear that about Catherine. Opposes loving sovereigns - favoritism. MU students took part here.

1782-1786 supplement to the “Moscow Gazette” - “City and village library”. There is no clear frequency. At first I wanted a monthly one for a year. I tried to interest the landowners in reading. The main function is entertainment. Mostly fiction, translated. Among the original works is the cycle “Russian Proverbs”. 16 moralizing stories. Tries to interpret proverbs. Some had a political sound - “Grey hair in the beard, devil in the rib”, “Great fortune, but little intelligence.” The young man Lavid, who is constantly lucky, becomes a sovereign on an unknown island. The first order is to build a carousel. The island is approaching destruction. He died during the carousel test. "Close to the king, close to death."

“Evening Dawn” - monthly. Mystical meaning of the name. Should serve as a sequel to Morning Light. The editor of the magazine was Schwartz, a German. At first he was a tutor, then he joined the university staff. Rosicrucianism. Schwartz's students collaborated here. Out of touch with reality. Discussions about fasting, prudence, feelings, etc.

“Addition to the Moscow Gazette” (1783-1784). Almost every issue of the newspaper. History, geography, current foreign policy. The problem of education: own system of pedagogical views. A lot of space is devoted to the USA. Pro-American sentiments - Benjamin Franklin, also a Freemason. The magazine angered Catherine. In one of the issues for 1784, “History of the Jesuit Order.” The Jesuits are members of a Catholic monastic order that arose in 16th century France. Principle: strict centralization, juniors are submissive to elders. Catherine patronized him. Novikov criticizes. Catherine orders that this number be confiscated.

Magazine "The Rest Industrious" (1784-1785), irregular. He called himself a continuation of "Evening Dawn", but less mystical. Mostly MU students. Associated with Freemasonry. Lots of entertaining articles, even articles for children. Sometimes there were satirical attacks. The work on the language is interesting. Simplification of newspaper and magazine language, rejection of archaisms and solemnity.

Weekly supplement - the first magazine for children in Russia “Children's reading for the heart and mind” (1785-1789). I believed that education should be done with the help of books. The main thing is accessibility. Educate and entertain. The magazine is associated with charity. Free application. In 1989, the lease agreement with MU expires. The first two years were edited by Novikov himself, then by Petrov and Karamzin. Mostly short articles, moralizing letters. In general, Christian education - texts from the Old and New Testaments. Karamzin stands out somewhat - long translated stories. The magazine is aimed at patriotic education. “The Peasant State”, “Correspondence between Father and Son about Village Life” - respect for peasant labor. A certain publication style is accessibility. Popularity, reissue.

1788-1790 supplement "Shop of natural history, physics and chemistry." First twice a week for 2 years, then weekly. Editor - Prokopovich-Antonsky. Mainly translations from three French dictionaries on natural sciences. Education. Conflict with Freemasonry.

So, for the period from 1779 to 1792 (before the arrest and exile to the Shlisselburg fortress) there were about 900 titles of books and many periodicals. The bulk of the books are for enlightenment: works by Sumarokov, Kheraskov, Voltaire, Moliere, Rousseau, Diderot, Swift.

To combat Freemasonry in the 80s, Catherine composed three comedies: 1785 “The Deceiver” and “The Seduced”, 1786 “The Siberian Shaman”. 1785 - ordered that all his books be examined, Archbishop Plato must test Novikov in accordance with the laws of the Christian faith. He says that Novikov is a true Christian. Of the 460 books, 23 are considered freethinking, 6 are to be burned, the rest - Voltaire, fairy tales, songs - cannot be sold.

1787 is a lean year, the government cannot fight. Novikov decided to help the peasants: he distributes all the grain from his own barns, borrows money, buys grain and gives it away. Oratory activity. Provided for residents of 100 villages. Creates a grain fund in case of crop failure. 1789 - French Revolution. Catherine did not renew her contract with Novikov. Prozorovsky should watch Novikov. In the spring of 1792 - search, arrest, secretly transported to the Shlisselburg fortress. Interrogation with torture - Shishkovsky, the protocols were read personally by Ekaterina. Novikov is declared a state criminal, the organizer of a conspiracy against the government, the leader of a secret society against Christianity, an agent of foreign powers and a publisher of corrupt books. Sentenced to death, Catherine replaced it with 15 years in the fortress. All of Novikov's publishing activities were destroyed. Together with Novikov, the Masons suffered - Trubetskoy, Lopukhin as accomplices - a written undertaking not to leave the estates. In 1796, Catherine dies, Pavel Petrovich is loyal to Novikov, frees him and calls him to the palace, apparently offering him a job. He chose to retire from politics. He left sick and lived until 1818, but all his life he struggled with poverty and disease and wanted to organize a cloth factory. He spent his entire life on his estate Avdotino. Defense of the ideas of monarchism in the magazine “Interlocutor of Lovers of the Russian Word.” Satirical journalism D.I. Fonvizin in the magazine. Published from June 1783 to September 1784. 1773-1775 - peasant war led by Pugachev. Catherine considered it necessary to strengthen local authorities. It was necessary to strengthen supervision. 75 - Russia is divided into 40 provinces instead of 8 as under Peter. In 85, the rights of the nobles were expanded - “Charter granted to the nobility.” System of favoritism. Seeks to forget about liberal rule. Double policy: an enlightened monarch for foreign countries and a tough ruler for his own. In 1783, the Russian Academy was created, headed by Ekaterina Romanovna Dashkova. Princess. Support for Catherine II. The external goal of the new publication is to help the Russian Academy in creating an Academic Dictionary of the Russian Language. The first magazine that deliberately refuses translations. Circulation: 1800 copies. Monthly, 16 issues. Dashkova is the president of the Russian Academy, the Academy of Sciences and the magazine. The secret editor is Ekaterina herself. Derzhavin “Ode to Felitsa” - 1783. An informational reason for promoting the magazine. Showed it to Kozodavlev, an aspiring writer. That one is Dashkova. That - to Catherine. This ode gives two lines in the journal. The first is the glorification of the monarchy in general and Catherine the Second as an example of an enlightened monarch. The second is satirical, attacks against nobles, the court, and the shortcomings of public life. In general, Catherine the Second gravitated towards satirical journalism. As soon as Catherine the Second lost interest in the magazine, it closed. 1 motive - the activities of the new academy. 2 motive - Derzhavin's ode, 3 - the empress's desire to participate in journalism and influence public opinion. Re-enactment of the story of "Stuff". It was necessary to remove N. Panin from the Collegium of Foreign Affairs and his secretary, Fonvizin. Leader of the noble liberals. At the end of March 1783 N. Panin dies. Many blamed Catherine the Second for this. He Ane only removed him, but also arrested many people close to him. Panin influenced the heir Pavel Petrovich. "Panin's party" was destroyed. The production of “The Minor” also played a role. Panin's political will, which was most likely written by Fonvizin, was distributed among the lists. Pavel Petrovich was forced to travel and then sent to Gatchina in order to limit Panin’s influence on him. “Ode to Felitsa” appears very timely for Catherine. Catherine is portrayed there as an ideal who is thwarted by liberal nobles. Fighting gallomania. Toadying, flattery - again abstract satire. Participating in the magazine: M. Derzhavin. DI. Fonvizin, Ya.B. Knyazhnin. I. Bogdanovich, M. M. Kheraskov. Naturally Catherine herself. She also acts as a historian. Satirical notes “There were stories and tales” about everyday incidents. The narrative style was very reminiscent of an English author. The second cycle is “Notes on Russian history.” About half of all pages. The 3rd issue contains questions from an anonymous author (Fonvizin, in fact) to the author of “Facts and Fables”. Ekaterina publishes them and gives answers to them. Some questions are addressed to her twice in different formulations. The method of collecting information is interviews. The most pressing issues: the legislative system, the system of favoritism. The defeat of Panin's party. From purely political problems, Fonvizin moves on to literary ones - he blames Catherine for being empty. After this, Fonvizin undertakes a “letter of repentance.” Repentant only in form. Then. Philological studies - satire was hidden underneath them. "The experience of a Russian class member." Number 4 Here is another material, “Petition to the Russian Minerva from Russian Writers.” The question of the status of the writer in Russian society. Fonvizin's next work was prepared. But not printed. "General Court Grammar". “Friend of Honest People or Starodum” D.I. Fonvizina. Prohibition of publication. Handwritten version, since Fonvizin is prohibited from publishing. “Friend,” unlike “Chimes,” is a journalistic work. Just one number. Copied by hand. In the title, Fonvizin puts “a periodical work dedicated to the truth.” Personal journalism. Continuation of those characters who have already been introduced in the comedy “Minor”. I wanted to publish Starodum’s correspondence with various correspondents - the epistolary genre. The theme of the collapse of the noble family, moral problems, problems of education. More heroes - Taras Skotinin, Mrs. Prostakova. He writes to her that his beloved pig Aksinya died, he is beside himself with grief, so he decided to become an educator - a moral teacher with a rod in his hands. Fonvizin wanted to publish a number of other satirical works that he could not publish in Sobesednik. “General Court Grammar” - in the form of questions and answers. 6 kinds of vile court souls. New cases and forms - court case - inclination of the strong to impudence, and the weak to meanness. Active, passive and positive voice. The most commonly used word, “to owe,” is not used in the past tense because debts are not repaid. The grammar was never published. “Letter from the court councilor Vzyatkin.” Many believe that this is a continuation of the image of the adviser from the comedy “Brigadier”. In literature, Fonvizin adhered to classicism, and realistic features are noticeable in journalism. Enlightenment realism. Non-one-dimensional characteristic. For classicism, heroes are either exclusively good or bad. And the adviser has decent children. Vzyatkin’s son Mityushka is the creator of the Consolidated Code, an allusion to Catherine’s Order. Before this article, it was believed that only minor officials could be scammers; Fonvizin destroys this idea. The letter is addressed to the Merciful, his Excellency - also a fraudster. Signed with the date “Moscow 1777”. Lots of political allusions. In the letter, Vzyatkin congratulates Milostivets on the fact that he quite accidentally occupies a high position, without any work. Then comes His Excellency's answer. Destruction of the idealization of major dignitaries. “An uncle’s instructions to his nephew” - the same thing, he got rich because of bribes. Dramatic scene “Conversation with Princess Khaldina.” Representatives of high society who spend their time idly. Starodum argues that there are no good speakers in Russia because they have nowhere to use their skills and proposes to create a parliament where new laws and the activities of ministers could be discussed. The main genre is writing. The main character is Starodum. In 1785, Fonvizin suffered from paralysis, and his activities stopped there.

In the preface, the magazine publisher admits to readers his weakness: he is lazy and therefore does not read anything, does not correspond with anyone and does not serve anywhere. But he certainly wants to benefit the fatherland, because he agrees with the words of the famous Russian poet (Sumarokov) that “living in the world is useless, weighing down only the earth.” Since his upbringing and spiritual gifts do not allow him to serve his fellow citizens with useful writing, he decided to publish other people’s works and asks to send him letters, essays and translations in prose and verse, especially satirical, critical and others that serve to correct morals, and promises to publish them all in their sheets. In accordance with his inclinations, he decides to call his magazine Drone. Having printed the Parable in verse and not knowing how to fill the space on his sheet, the publisher prints a letter from his uncle (presumably the author was N.I. Popov), sent the year before last and left unanswered, and asks readers to answer his uncle instead. The uncle persuades his nephew Ivanushka to come to the city and seek the position of prosecutor - this is a lucrative position: if you take up the matter wisely, you can get ten times your salary, and since Ivanushka’s father’s estate is “a piece of junk with peas”, he needs to make a fortune himself...