Slide 3

An ecological system includes abiotic (that is, nonliving) and biotic components.

Sometimes the abiotic components of a biogeocenosis are called a biotope, and the biotic components are called a biocenosis.

Soil, which belongs to the abiotic components, is often considered as a separate structural unit of the ecosystem.

Soil is a link between biotic and abiotic factors of biogeocenosis. Soil consists of four important components:

• mineral base (50–60% of the total volume);
• organic matter (up to 10%);
• air (15–25%);
• water (25–35%).

Slide 4

The main functions of biogeocenosis are the accumulation and redistribution of energy and the circulation of substances.

Within an ecological system, organic matter is created by autotrophic organisms (such as plants). Plants are eaten by animals, which in turn are eaten by other animals. This sequence is called a food chain; Each link in the food chain is called a trophic level (Greek trophos, “food”).

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Organisms at the first trophic level are called primary producers. On land, most of the producers are plants of forests and meadows; in water it is mainly green algae. In addition, blue-green algae and some bacteria can produce organic substances.

Slide 7

• There is another group of organisms called decomposers. These are saprophytes (usually bacteria and fungi) that feed on the organic remains of dead plants and animals (detritus).
• Animals – detritivores – can also feed on detritus, accelerating the process of decomposition of the remains. Detritivores, in turn, can be eaten by predators. Unlike grazing food chains, which begin with primary producers (that is, living organic matter), detrital food chains begin with detritus (that is, dead organic matter).

Slide 8

In food chain diagrams, each organism is represented as feeding on a specific type of organism. The reality is much more complex, and organisms (especially predators) can feed on a wide variety of organisms, even from different food chains. Thus, food chains intertwine to form food webs.

Slide 9

Food webs serve as the basis for building ecological pyramids. The simplest of them are population pyramids, which reflect the number of organisms (individuals) at each trophic level. For ease of analysis, these quantities are displayed by rectangles, the length of which is proportional to the number of organisms living in the ecosystem under study, or the logarithm of this quantity. Often, population pyramids are built per unit area (in terrestrial ecosystems) or volume (in aquatic ecosystems).

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History of the term Concept of ecosystem Structure of an ecosystem Mechanisms of ecosystem functioning Spatial boundaries of an ecosystem (chorological aspect) Spatial boundaries of an ecosystem (chorological aspect) Temporal boundaries of an ecosystem (chronological aspect) Temporal boundaries of an ecosystem (chronological aspect) Ranks of ecosystems Artificial ecosystems

The ideas of the unity of all living things in nature, its interaction and the conditioning of processes in nature date back to ancient times. However, the concept began to acquire a modern interpretation at the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries. Thus, the German hydrobiologist K. Möbius in 1877 described an oyster bank as a community of organisms and gave it the name “biocenosis”. In the classic work of the American biologist S. Forbes, a lake with its entire collection of organisms is defined as a “microcosm” (“The lake as a microcosme”, 1887). The modern term was first proposed by the English ecologist A. Tansley in 1935. V.V. Dokuchaev also developed the idea of ​​biocenosis as an integral system. However, in Russian science, the concept of biogeocenosis introduced by V.N. Sukachev (1944) has become generally accepted. In related sciences, there are also various definitions that to one degree or another coincide with the concept of “ecosystem”, for example, “geosystem” in geoecology or introduced around the same period by other scientists “Holocene” (F. Clements, 1930) and “bio-inert body "(V.I. Vernadsky, 1944).

Definitions Any entity that includes all the organisms in a given area and interacts with the physical environment in such a way that the flow of energy creates a well-defined trophic structure, species diversity and cycling of substances (the exchange of substances and energy between biotic and abiotic parts) within the system is an ecological system , or ecosystem (Y. Odum, 1971). Ecosystem is a system of physical, chemical and biological processes (A. Tansley, 1935). A community of living organisms, together with the nonliving part of the environment in which it is found, and all its various interactions, is called an ecosystem (D. F. Owen.). Any set of organisms and inorganic components of their environment in which the cycle of substances can occur is called an ecological system or ecosystem (V.V. Denisov.). Biogeocenosis (V.N. Sukachev, 1944) is an interdependent complex of living and inert components interconnected by metabolism and energy. Sometimes it is especially emphasized that an ecosystem is a historically established system.

Ecosystem concept An ecosystem is a complex self-organizing, self-regulating and self-developing system. The main characteristic of an ecosystem is the presence of relatively closed, spatially and temporally stable flows of matter and energy between the biotic and abiotic parts of the ecosystem. It follows from this that not every biological system can be called an ecosystem, for example, an aquarium or a rotten stump is not one. These biological systems are not sufficiently self-sufficient and self-regulating; if you stop regulating the conditions and maintaining the characteristics at the same level, it will collapse quickly enough. Such communities do not form independent closed cycles of matter and energy, but are only part of a larger system. Such systems should be called communities of lower rank, or microcosms. Sometimes the concept of facies is used for them (for example, in geoecology), but it is not able to fully describe such systems, especially of artificial origin. In general, in different sciences, the concept of “facies” corresponds to different definitions: from subecosystem-level systems to concepts not related to the ecosystem, or a concept that unites homogeneous ecosystems, or is almost identical to the definition of an ecosystem.

Eugene Odum (). Father of Ecosystem Ecology

V. N. Sukachev (). Author of the term biogeocenosis An ecosystem is an open system and is characterized by input and output flows of matter and energy. The basis of the existence of almost any ecosystem is the flow of energy from sunlight, which is a consequence of a thermonuclear reaction, in direct (photosynthesis) or indirect (decomposition of organic matter) form, with the exception of deep-sea ecosystems: “black” and “white smokers”, the source of energy in which is internal heat earth and the energy of chemical reactions.

Biogeocenosis and ecosystem In accordance with the definitions, there is no difference between the concepts of “ecosystem” and “biogeocoenosis”; biogeocenosis can be considered a complete synonym for the term ecosystem. However, there is a widespread opinion that biogeocenosis can serve as an analogue of an ecosystem at the most basic level, since the term “biogeocoenosis” places more emphasis on the connection of a biocenosis with a specific area of ​​land or aquatic environment, while an ecosystem implies any abstract area. Therefore, biogeocenoses are usually considered a special case of an ecosystem. Different authors in the definition of the term biogeocenosis list specific biotic and abiotic components of biogeocenosis, while the definition of an ecosystem is more general.

In an ecosystem, two components can be distinguished: biotic and abiotic. The biotic is divided into autotrophic and heterotrophic components, which form the trophic structure of the ecosystem. The only source of energy for the existence of the ecosystem and the maintenance of various processes in it are producers that absorb solar energy with an efficiency of 0.1 1%, rarely 3 4.5% of the original amount. Autotrophs represent the first trophic level of an ecosystem. Subsequent trophic levels of the ecosystem are formed at the expense of consumers and are closed by decomposers, which convert inanimate organic matter into a mineral form that can be assimilated by an autotrophic element.

Main components of an ecosystem From the point of view of structure, the ecosystem is divided into: climate regime, which determines temperature, humidity, lighting conditions and other physical characteristics of the environment; inorganic substances included in the cycle; organic compounds that connect the biotic and abiotic parts in the cycle of matter and energy; producers are organisms that create primary products; macroconsumers, or phagotrophs, heterotrophs that eat other organisms or large particles of organic matter; microconsumers (saprotrophs) are heterotrophs, mainly fungi and bacteria, which destroy dead organic matter, mineralizing it, thereby returning it to the cycle. The last three components form the biomass of the ecosystem.

From the point of view of the functioning of the ecosystem, the following functional blocks of organisms (in addition to autotrophs) are distinguished: biophages, organisms that eat other living organisms, saprophages, organisms that eat dead organic matter. This division shows a temporal-functional relationship in the ecosystem, focusing on the division in time of the formation of organic matter and its redistribution within the ecosystem (biophages) and processing by saprophages. Between the death of organic matter and the re-incorporation of its components into the cycle of matter in the ecosystem, a significant period of time can pass, for example, in the case of a pine log, 100 years or more. All these components are interconnected in space and time and form a single structural and functional system.

Typically, the concept of ecotope was defined as a habitat of organisms characterized by a certain combination of environmental conditions: soils, soils, microclimate, etc. However, in this case, this concept is actually almost identical to the concept of climatope. At the moment, an ecotope, in contrast to a biotope, is understood as a certain territory or water area with the entire set and characteristics of soils, soils, microclimate and other factors in a form unmodified by organisms. Examples of an ecotope include alluvial soils, newly formed volcanic or coral islands, quarries dug by humans, and other newly formed territories. In this case, the climatope is part of the ecotope.

Initially, the “climatope” was defined by V.N. Sukachev (1964) as the airy part of the biogeocenosis, which differs from the surrounding atmosphere in its gas composition, especially the concentration of carbon dioxide in the surface biohorizon, oxygen there and in photosynthetic biohorizons, air regime, biolin saturation, reduced and altered solar radiation and illumination, the presence of luminescence of plants and some animals, a special thermal regime and air humidity regime. At the moment, this concept is interpreted a little more broadly: as a characteristic of biogeocenosis, a combination of physical and chemical characteristics of the air or water environment, essential for the organisms inhabiting this environment. The climatope sets, on a long-term scale, the basic physical characteristics of the existence of animals and plants, determining the range of organisms that can exist in a given ecosystem.

Edaphotope An edaphotope is usually understood as soil as an integral element of an ecotope. However, more precisely, this concept should be defined as part of the inert environment transformed by organisms, that is, not all the soil, but only part of it. Soil (edaphotope) is the most important component of the ecosystem: it closes the cycles of matter and energy, transfers from dead organic matter to minerals and their involvement in living biomass]. The main carriers of energy in the edaphotope are organic carbon compounds, their labile and stable forms; they largely determine soil fertility. ]

A biotope is an ecotope transformed by biota, or, more precisely, a section of territory that is homogeneous in terms of living conditions for certain species of plants or animals, or for the formation of a certain biocenosis. Biocenosis is a historically established collection of plants, animals, microorganisms inhabiting a piece of land or a body of water (biotope). Competition and natural selection play an important role in the formation of biocenosis. The main unit of biocenosis is consortia, since any organisms are, to one degree or another, associated with autotrophs and form a complex system of consorts of various orders, and this network is a consort of an increasingly greater order and can indirectly depend on an increasing number of consort determinants. It is also possible to divide the biocenosis into phytocenosis and zoocenosis. A phytocenosis is a collection of plant populations of one community, which form the determinants of consortia. A zoocenosis is a collection of animal populations, which are consorts of various orders and serve as a mechanism for the redistribution of matter and energy within an ecosystem (see functioning of ecosystems). Biotope and biocenosis together form a biogeocenosis/ecosystem.

Ecosystem stability An ecosystem can be described by a complex pattern of forward and feedback connections that maintain homeostasis of the system within certain limits of environmental parameters. Thus, within certain limits, the ecosystem is capable of maintaining its structure and functions relatively unchanged under external influences. Usually, two types of homeostasis are distinguished: resistant, the ability of ecosystems to maintain structure and function under negative external influences, and elastic, the ability of an ecosystem to restore structure and function when some components of the ecosystem are lost.

Sometimes the third aspect of sustainability is the stability of an ecosystem in relation to changes in environmental characteristics and changes in its internal characteristics. If an ecosystem functions stably in a wide range of environmental parameters and a large number of interchangeable species are present in the ecosystem, such a community is called dynamically strong. In the opposite case, when an ecosystem can exist in a very limited set of environmental parameters, and most species are indispensable in their functions, such a community is called dynamically fragile]. It should be noted that this characteristic generally does not depend on the number of species and the complexity of communities. A classic example is the Great Barrier Reef off the coast of Australia, which is one of the world's biodiversity hotspots. The symbiotic coral algae, dinoflagellates, are very sensitive to temperature. Deviation from the optimum by literally a couple of degrees leads to the death of algae, and polyps receive up to % of their nutrients from the photosynthesis of their mutualists. ]

Different equilibrium states of systems (illustration) Ecosystems have many states in which they are in dynamic equilibrium; if removed from it by external forces, the ecosystem will not necessarily return to its original state; it will often be attracted to the nearest equilibrium state, although it may be very close to the original one.

Typically, sustainability was and is associated with the biodiversity of species in an ecosystem, that is, the higher the biodiversity, the more complex the organization of communities, the more complex the food webs, the higher the stability of ecosystems. But already 40 years ago or more, there were different points of view on this issue, and at the moment the most common view is that both local and overall ecosystem stability depend on a much larger set of factors than just the complexity of communities and biodiversity. Thus, at the moment, an increase in biodiversity is usually associated with an increase in complexity, the strength of connections between ecosystem components, and the stability of matter and energy flows between components. The importance of biodiversity is that it allows the formation of many communities, different in structure, form, functions, and provides a sustainable opportunity for their formation. The higher the biodiversity, the greater the number of communities that can exist, the greater the number of diverse reactions (from the point of view of biogeochemistry) that can be carried out, ensuring the existence of the biosphere as a whole.

In nature, there are no clear boundaries between different ecosystems. You can always point to one ecosystem or another, but it is not possible to identify discrete boundaries if they are not represented by various landscape factors (cliffs, rivers, different hill slopes, rock outcrops, etc.); there are always smooth transitions from one ecosystems to another. This is due to a relatively smooth change in the gradient of environmental factors (humidity, temperature, humidity, etc.). Sometimes transitions from one ecosystem to another can actually be an ecosystem in its own right. Typically, communities formed at the junction of different ecosystems are called ecotones. The term “ecotone” was introduced by F. Clements in 1905.

Ecotones Ecotones play a significant role in maintaining the biological diversity of ecosystems due to the so-called edge effect of a combination of a set of environmental factors of different ecosystems, which determines a greater variety of environmental conditions, therefore, licenses and ecological niches. Thus, the existence of species from both one and another ecosystem, as well as ecotone-specific species (for example, vegetation of coastal aquatic habitats), is possible.

On the same biotope, different ecosystems exist over time. The change from one ecosystem to another can take both quite long and relatively short (several years) periods of time. The duration of the existence of ecosystems in this case is determined by the stage of succession. A change in ecosystems in a biotope can also be caused by catastrophic processes, but in this case, the biotope itself changes significantly, and such a change is not usually called succession (with some exceptions, when a catastrophe, for example, a fire, is a natural stage of cyclic succession).

Succession Succession is a consistent, natural replacement of one community by another in a certain area of ​​the territory, caused by internal factors of ecosystem development. Each previous community predetermines the conditions for the existence of the next and its own extinction. This is due to the fact that in ecosystems that are transitional in the succession series, there is an accumulation of matter and energy, which they are no longer able to include in the cycle, transformation of the biotope, changes in the microclimate and other factors, and thereby a material-energy base is created, as well as the environmental conditions necessary for the formation of subsequent communities. However, there is another model that explains the mechanism of succession as follows: the species of each previous community are displaced only by consistent competition, inhibiting and “resisting” the introduction of subsequent species. However, this theory only considers the competitive relationships between species, without describing the whole picture of the ecosystem as a whole. Of course, such processes are taking place, but competitive displacement of previous species is possible precisely because they transform the biotope. Thus, both models describe different aspects of the process and are valid at the same time.

Succession can be autotrophic or heterotrophic. In the early stages of an autotrophic succession sequence, the P/R ratio is much greater than one, since the primary communities usually have high productivity, but the structure of the ecosystem has not yet been fully formed, and there is no way to utilize this biomass. Consistently, with the complication of communities, with the complication of the structure of the ecosystem, respiration costs (R) increase, as more and more heterotrophs appear, responsible for the redistribution of material and energy flows, the ratio P/R tends to unity and is actually the same for the terminal community (ecosystem ). Heterotrophic succession has the opposite characteristics: in it the P/R ratio in the early stages is much less than one and gradually increases as we move through the successional stages.

The issue of ranking ecosystems is quite complex. The distinction between minimal ecosystems (biogeocoenoses) and the ecosystem of the highest rank in the biosphere is beyond doubt. Intermediate allocations are quite complex, since the complexities of the chorological aspect do not always clearly allow one to determine the boundaries of ecosystems. In geoecology (and landscape science) there is the following ranking: facies tract (ecosystem) landscape geographic region geographic region biome biosphere. In ecology, there is a similar ranking, however, it is usually believed that it is correct to distinguish only one intermediate ecosystem of a biome.

Biomes A biome is a large systemic-geographical (ecosystem) subdivision within a natural-climatic zone (Reimers N.F.). According to R.H. Whittaker, a group of ecosystems of a given continent that have a similar structure or physiognomy of vegetation and the general nature of environmental conditions. This definition is somewhat incorrect, since there is a link to a specific continent, and some biomes are present on different continents, for example, the tundra biome or the steppe. At the moment, the most generally accepted definition is: “A biome is a set of ecosystems with a similar type of vegetation, located in the same natural climatic zone” (Akimova T. A., Khaskin V. V.). What these definitions have in common is that in any case, a biome is a set of ecosystems of one natural climatic zone. Biosphere The biosphere covers the entire surface of the Earth, covering it with a film of living matter. The term biosphere was introduced by Jean-Baptiste Lamarck at the beginning of the 19th century, and in geology it was proposed by the Austrian geologist Eduard Suess in 1875. However, the creation of a holistic doctrine of the biosphere belongs to the Russian scientist Vladimir Ivanovich Vernadsky. The biosphere is an ecosystem of the highest order, uniting all other ecosystems and ensuring the existence of life on Earth. The biosphere includes: atmosphere, hydrosphere, lithosphere, pedosphere.
Artificial ecosystems are ecosystems created by man, for example, agrocenoses, natural economic systems or Biosphere 2. Artificial ecosystems have the same set of components as natural ones: producers, consumers and decomposers, but there are significant differences in the redistribution of matter and energy flows.

Irina Skvortsova
Presentation “Forests of Chuvashia. Ecosystem"

Forests of Chuvashia. Ecosystem.

Slide 1. A forest is a vast area covered with trees and shrubs. Trees are the main producers forests.

Slide 2. Conifers forests. There are only coniferous trees - spruce, pine, fir, larch. They occupy 24% of the territory.

Slide 3. Mixed forests. There are not only coniferous trees (spruce, pine, but also deciduous (birch, aspen, alder). They occupy 39.2% of the territory.

Slide 4. Broad-leaved forests. They are made up of trees "large leaves"- made of oak, maple, linden. They occupy 36.7% of the territory.

Slide 5. All plants that form the forest are located in the forest in steps, or tiers. Some forests have even more than five tiers. The first tier is trees. The second tier is shrubs. The third tier is herbaceous plants. The fourth tier is mosses and lichens.

Slide 6. Squirrel. Lives in tree hollows. It feeds on nuts, acorns, pine and spruce seeds, berries, and mushrooms, which are stored in the summer for the winter. In summer, the squirrel's fur is reddish, and in winter it is grayish.

Slide 7. Hares feed on grass, bark of young trees and shrubs. During the day they hide under bushes, and at night they come out to feed.

Slide 8. Moose live among trees and bushes. They feed on grass, bark and leaves of trees and bushes. Horns protect from enemies

Slide 9. The wolf lives in a hole. They hunt at night, often in packs. They eat wild boars, hares, and domestic animals

Slide 10. Lynx. Lives in the wilderness forests and close to water bodies. It feeds on small animals and birds. Often attacks foxes and hares.

Slide 11. The fox lives in a deep hole, which is dug in a ravine under a bush. It feeds on the meat of hares, hedgehogs, mice, and steals chickens and eggs from the village.

Slide 12. Bear. The largest predator in the forest is the brown bear. Live in the wilderness forests. Bears are omnivores.

Slide 13. Hedgehogs feed on mosquito larvae, beetles, and also feast on the eggs or chicks of any small birds nesting on the ground. They make themselves deep (wintering) burrows and go into deep hibernation during the winter.

Slide 14. Meaning forests. The forest provides wood. IN animals and birds live in forests, mushrooms, berries and wild fruit trees grow. Soil covered forests, retains moisture well.

Forests maintain the full flow of rivers, protect the soil from destruction, and prevent landslides in the mountains. Forests protect fields from dry winds and dust storms.

Forests decorate the earth and purify the air. That's why forests must be preserved and protected from fires and deforestation. Create reserves for rare plant species.

Publications on the topic:

Electronic didactic multimedia manual on ecology. Presentation “What will happen if birds disappear from the forest” Description of working with the algorithm for using electronic didactic multimedia aids in the educational process. No. 1 Educator.

Presentation “Interactive game for children of the middle group “Wild Animals of the Forest” Interactive game for middle preschool children “Wild Animals of the Forest” Goal: expand and consolidate ideas about features.

Summary of a lesson on ecology in the senior group. Developed and conducted by teacher Anuchina Irina Mikhailovna Topic: Ecosystem “Sea” Goal: Formation.

Summary of the lesson on Lego construction and TRIZ “Ecosystem “Pond”” Goal: To help children establish a connection between the river and its inhabitants. Teach children to build a snail, following a model. Form differentiation in children.

Age group: senior. GCD form: integrated lesson. Form of organization: subgroup. Goal: to contribute to the expansion of ideas.

Presentation “Great teachers of Chuvashia. Volkov Gennady Nikandrovich" Volkov Gennady Nikandrovich (October 31, 1927 – December 27, 2010) “Unfortunately, we forget traditions, and without traditions there is no culture, without culture there is no education, without.

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Presentation on the topic: Ecosystems

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History of the term History of the term Concept of an ecosystem Structure of an ecosystem Mechanisms of ecosystem functioning Spatial boundaries of an ecosystem (chorological aspect) Temporal boundaries of an ecosystem (chronological aspect) Ranks of ecosystems Artificial ecosystems

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The ideas of the unity of all living things in nature, its interaction and the conditioning of processes in nature date back to ancient times. However, the concept began to acquire a modern interpretation at the turn of the 19th-20th centuries. Thus, the German hydrobiologist K. Möbius in 1877 described an oyster bank as a community of organisms and gave it the name “biocenosis”. In the classic work of the American biologist S. Forbes, a lake with its entire collection of organisms is defined as a “microcosm” (“The lake as a microcosme”, 1887). The modern term was first proposed by the English ecologist A. Tansley in 1935. V.V. Dokuchaev also developed the idea of ​​biocenosis as an integral system. However, in Russian science, the concept of biogeocenosis introduced by V.N. Sukachev (1944) has become generally accepted. In related sciences, there are also various definitions that to one degree or another coincide with the concept of “ecosystem”, for example, “geosystem” in geoecology or introduced around the same period by other scientists “Holocene” (F. Clements, 1930) and “bio-inert body "(V.I. Vernadsky, 1944). The ideas of the unity of all living things in nature, its interaction and the conditioning of processes in nature date back to ancient times. However, the concept began to acquire a modern interpretation at the turn of the 19th-20th centuries. Thus, the German hydrobiologist K. Möbius in 1877 described an oyster bank as a community of organisms and gave it the name “biocenosis”. In the classic work of the American biologist S. Forbes, a lake with its entire collection of organisms is defined as a “microcosm” (“The lake as a microcosme”, 1887). The modern term was first proposed by the English ecologist A. Tansley in 1935. V.V. Dokuchaev also developed the idea of ​​biocenosis as an integral system. However, in Russian science, the concept of biogeocenosis introduced by V.N. Sukachev (1944) has become generally accepted. In related sciences, there are also various definitions that to one degree or another coincide with the concept of “ecosystem”, for example, “geosystem” in geoecology or introduced around the same period by other scientists “Holocene” (F. Clements, 1930) and “bio-inert body "(V.I. Vernadsky, 1944).

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Any entity that includes all the organisms in a given area and interacts with the physical environment in such a way that the flow of energy creates a well-defined trophic structure, species diversity and cycling of substances (the exchange of substances and energy between the biotic and abiotic parts) within the system is an ecological system. or ecosystem (Y. Odum, 1971). Ecosystem is a system of physical, chemical and biological processes (A. Tansley, 1935). A community of living organisms, together with the nonliving part of the environment in which it is found, and all its various interactions, is called an ecosystem (D. F. Owen.). Any set of organisms and inorganic components of their environment in which the cycle of substances can occur is called an ecological system or ecosystem (V.V. Denisov.). Biogeocenosis (V.N. Sukachev, 1944) is an interdependent complex of living and inert components interconnected by metabolism and energy. Sometimes it is especially emphasized that an ecosystem is a historically established system.

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An ecosystem is a complex self-organizing, self-regulating and self-developing system. The main characteristic of an ecosystem is the presence of relatively closed, spatially and temporally stable flows of matter and energy between the biotic and abiotic parts of the ecosystem. It follows from this that not every biological system can be called an ecosystem, for example, an aquarium or a rotten stump is not one. These biological systems are not sufficiently self-sufficient and self-regulating; if you stop regulating the conditions and maintaining the characteristics at the same level, it will collapse quickly enough. Such communities do not form independent closed cycles of matter and energy, but are only part of a larger system. Such systems should be called communities of lower rank, or microcosms. Sometimes the concept of facies is used for them (for example, in geoecology), but it is not able to fully describe such systems, especially of artificial origin. In general, in different sciences, the concept of “facies” corresponds to different definitions: from subecosystem-level systems to concepts not related to the ecosystem, or a concept that unites homogeneous ecosystems, or is almost identical to the definition of an ecosystem.

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In accordance with the definitions, there is no difference between the concepts of “ecosystem” and “biogeocoenosis”; biogeocenosis can be considered a complete synonym for the term ecosystem. However, there is a widespread opinion that a biogeocenosis can serve as an analogue of an ecosystem at the most basic level, since the term “biogeocoenosis” places greater emphasis on the connection of a biocenosis with a specific area of ​​land or aquatic environment, while an ecosystem implies any abstract area. Therefore, biogeocenoses are usually considered a special case of an ecosystem. Different authors in the definition of the term biogeocenosis list specific biotic and abiotic components of biogeocenosis, while the definition of an ecosystem is more general.

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In an ecosystem, two components can be distinguished - biotic and abiotic. The biotic is divided into autotrophic and heterotrophic components, which form the trophic structure of the ecosystem. In an ecosystem, two components can be distinguished - biotic and abiotic. The biotic is divided into autotrophic and heterotrophic components, which form the trophic structure of the ecosystem. The only source of energy for the existence of the ecosystem and the maintenance of various processes in it are producers that absorb solar energy with an efficiency of 0.1 - 1%, rarely 3 - 4.5% of the original amount. Autotrophs represent the first trophic level of an ecosystem. Subsequent trophic levels of the ecosystem are formed at the expense of consumers and are closed by decomposers, which convert inanimate organic matter into a mineral form that can be assimilated by an autotrophic element.

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From the point of view of structure, the ecosystem is divided into: climate regime, which determines temperature, humidity, lighting conditions and other physical characteristics of the environment; inorganic substances included in the cycle; organic compounds that connect the biotic and abiotic parts in the cycle of matter and energy; producers - organisms that create primary products; macroconsumers, or phagotrophs, are heterotrophs that eat other organisms or large particles of organic matter; microconsumers (saprotrophs) - heterotrophs, mainly fungi and bacteria, which destroy dead organic matter, mineralizing it, thereby returning it to the cycle. The last three components form the biomass of the ecosystem.

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From the point of view of the functioning of the ecosystem, the following functional blocks of organisms (in addition to autotrophs) are distinguished: From the point of view of the functioning of the ecosystem, the following functional blocks of organisms are distinguished (in addition to autotrophs): biophages - organisms that eat other living organisms, saprophages - organisms that eat dead organic matter. This division shows the temporal-functional relationship in the ecosystem, focusing on the division in time of the formation of organic matter and its redistribution within the ecosystem (biophages) and processing by saprophages. Between the death of organic matter and the re-incorporation of its components into the cycle of matter in the ecosystem, a significant period of time can pass, for example, in the case of a pine log, 100 years or more. All these components are interconnected in space and time and form a single structural and functional system.

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Typically, the concept of ecotope was defined as a habitat of organisms characterized by a certain combination of environmental conditions: soils, soils, microclimate, etc. However, in this case, this concept is actually almost identical to the concept of climatope. Typically, the concept of ecotope was defined as a habitat of organisms characterized by a certain combination of environmental conditions: soils, soils, microclimate, etc. However, in this case, this concept is actually almost identical to the concept of climatope. At the moment, an ecotope, in contrast to a biotope, is understood as a certain territory or water area with the entire set and characteristics of soils, soils, microclimate and other factors in a form unmodified by organisms. Examples of an ecotope include alluvial soils, newly formed volcanic or coral islands, quarries dug by humans, and other newly formed areas. In this case, the climatope is part of the ecotope.

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Initially, the “climatope” was defined by V.N. Sukachev (1964) as the airy part of the biogeocenosis, which differs from the surrounding atmosphere in its gas composition, especially the concentration of carbon dioxide in the surface biohorizon, oxygen there and in photosynthetic biohorizons, air regime, biolin saturation, reduced and altered solar radiation and illumination, the presence of luminescence of plants and some animals, a special thermal regime and air humidity regime. Initially, the “climatope” was defined by V.N. Sukachev (1964) as the airy part of the biogeocenosis, which differs from the surrounding atmosphere in its gas composition, especially the concentration of carbon dioxide in the surface biohorizon, oxygen there and in photosynthetic biohorizons, air regime, biolin saturation, reduced and altered solar radiation and illumination, the presence of luminescence of plants and some animals, a special thermal regime and air humidity regime. At the moment, this concept is interpreted a little more broadly: as a characteristic of biogeocenosis, a combination of physical and chemical characteristics of the air or water environment, essential for the organisms inhabiting this environment. The climatope sets, on a long-term scale, the basic physical characteristics of the existence of animals and plants, determining the range of organisms that can exist in a given ecosystem.

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An edaphotope is usually understood as soil as an integral element of an ecotope. However, more precisely, this concept should be defined as part of the inert environment transformed by organisms, that is, not all the soil, but only part of it. Soil (edaphotope) is the most important component of the ecosystem: it closes the cycles of matter and energy, transfers from dead organic matter to minerals and their involvement in living biomass]. The main carriers of energy in the edaphotope are organic carbon compounds, their labile and stable forms; they largely determine soil fertility.

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Biotope is an ecotope transformed by biota, or, more precisely, a section of territory that is homogeneous in terms of living conditions for certain species of plants or animals, or for the formation of a certain biocenosis. Biotope is an ecotope transformed by biota, or, more precisely, a section of territory that is homogeneous in terms of living conditions for certain species of plants or animals, or for the formation of a certain biocenosis. Biocenosis is a historically established collection of plants, animals, microorganisms inhabiting a piece of land or a body of water (biotope). Competition and natural selection play an important role in the formation of biocenosis. The basic unit of a biocenosis is a consortium, since any organisms are, to one degree or another, associated with autotrophs and form a complex system of consorts of various orders, and this network is a consort of an increasingly greater order and can indirectly depend on an increasing number of consort determinants. It is also possible to divide the biocenosis into phytocenosis and zoocenosis. A phytocenosis is a collection of plant populations of one community, which form the determinants of consortia. A zoocenosis is a collection of animal populations, which are consorts of various orders and serve as a mechanism for the redistribution of matter and energy within an ecosystem (see functioning of ecosystems). Biotope and biocenosis together form a biogeocenosis/ecosystem.

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Stability of ecosystems Stability of ecosystems An ecosystem can be described by a complex scheme of forward and feedback connections that maintain homeostasis of the system within certain limits of environmental parameters. Thus, within certain limits, the ecosystem is capable of maintaining its structure and functions relatively unchanged under external influences. Usually, two types of homeostasis are distinguished: resistant - the ability of ecosystems to maintain structure and function under negative external influences and elastic - the ability of an ecosystem to restore structure and function when some components of the ecosystem are lost.

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Sometimes a third aspect of sustainability is distinguished - the stability of an ecosystem in relation to changes in environmental characteristics and changes in its internal characteristics. If an ecosystem functions stably in a wide range of environmental parameters and a large number of interchangeable species are present in the ecosystem, such a community is called dynamically strong. In the opposite case, when an ecosystem can exist in a very limited set of environmental parameters, and most species are indispensable in their functions, such a community is called dynamically fragile]. It should be noted that this characteristic generally does not depend on the number of species and the complexity of communities. A classic example is the Great Barrier Reef off the coast of Australia, which is one of the world's biodiversity hotspots - the coral's symbiotic algae, dinoflagellates, are very sensitive to temperature. A deviation from the optimum of just a couple of degrees leads to the death of algae, and polyps receive up to 50-60% of their nutrients from the photosynthesis of their mutualists. Sometimes a third aspect of sustainability is distinguished - the stability of an ecosystem in relation to changes in environmental characteristics and changes in its internal characteristics. If an ecosystem functions stably in a wide range of environmental parameters and a large number of interchangeable species are present in the ecosystem, such a community is called dynamically strong. In the opposite case, when an ecosystem can exist in a very limited set of environmental parameters, and most species are indispensable in their functions, such a community is called dynamically fragile]. It should be noted that this characteristic generally does not depend on the number of species and the complexity of communities. A classic example is the Great Barrier Reef off the coast of Australia, which is one of the world's biodiversity hotspots - the coral's symbiotic algae, dinoflagellates, are very sensitive to temperature. A deviation from the optimum of just a couple of degrees leads to the death of algae, and polyps receive up to 50-60% of their nutrients from the photosynthesis of their mutualists.

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Slide no. 26

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Typically, sustainability was and is associated with the biodiversity of species in an ecosystem, that is, the higher the biodiversity, the more complex the organization of communities, the more complex the food webs, the higher the stability of ecosystems. But already 40 years ago or more, there were different points of view on this issue, and at the moment the most common view is that both local and overall ecosystem stability depend on a much larger set of factors than just the complexity of communities and biodiversity. Thus, at the moment, an increase in biodiversity is usually associated with an increase in complexity, the strength of connections between ecosystem components, and the stability of matter and energy flows between components. Typically, sustainability was and is associated with the biodiversity of species in an ecosystem, that is, the higher the biodiversity, the more complex the organization of communities, the more complex the food webs, the higher the stability of ecosystems. But already 40 years ago or more, there were different points of view on this issue, and at the moment the most common view is that both local and overall ecosystem stability depend on a much larger set of factors than just the complexity of communities and biodiversity. Thus, at the moment, an increase in biodiversity is usually associated with an increase in complexity, the strength of connections between ecosystem components, and the stability of matter and energy flows between components. The importance of biodiversity is that it allows the formation of many communities, different in structure, form, functions, and provides a sustainable opportunity for their formation. The higher the biodiversity, the greater the number of communities that can exist, the greater the number of diverse reactions (from the point of view of biogeochemistry) that can be carried out, ensuring the existence of the biosphere as a whole.

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Slide no. 28

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In nature, there are no clear boundaries between different ecosystems. You can always point to one ecosystem or another, but it is not possible to identify discrete boundaries if they are not represented by various landscape factors (cliffs, rivers, different hill slopes, rock outcrops, etc.); there are always smooth transitions from one ecosystems to another. This is due to a relatively smooth change in the gradient of environmental factors (humidity, temperature, humidity, etc.). Sometimes transitions from one ecosystem to another can actually be an ecosystem in its own right. Typically, communities formed at the junction of different ecosystems are called ecotones. The term “ecotone” was introduced by F. Clements in 1905. In nature, there are no clear boundaries between different ecosystems. You can always point to one ecosystem or another, but it is not possible to identify discrete boundaries if they are not represented by various landscape factors (cliffs, rivers, different hill slopes, rock outcrops, etc.); there are always smooth transitions from one ecosystems to another. This is due to a relatively smooth change in the gradient of environmental factors (humidity, temperature, humidity, etc.). Sometimes transitions from one ecosystem to another can actually be an ecosystem in its own right. Typically, communities formed at the junction of different ecosystems are called ecotones. The term “ecotone” was introduced by F. Clements in 1905.

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On the same biotope, different ecosystems exist over time. The change from one ecosystem to another can take both quite long and relatively short (several years) periods of time. The duration of the existence of ecosystems in this case is determined by the stage of succession. A change in ecosystems in a biotope can also be caused by catastrophic processes, but in this case, the biotope itself changes significantly, and such a change is not usually called succession (with some exceptions, when a catastrophe, for example, a fire, is a natural stage of cyclic succession). On the same biotope, different ecosystems exist over time. The change from one ecosystem to another can take both quite long and relatively short (several years) periods of time. The duration of the existence of ecosystems in this case is determined by the stage of succession. A change in ecosystems in a biotope can also be caused by catastrophic processes, but in this case, the biotope itself changes significantly, and such a change is not usually called succession (with some exceptions, when a catastrophe, for example, a fire, is a natural stage of cyclic succession).

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Succession is a consistent, natural replacement of some communities by others in a certain area of ​​the territory, caused by internal factors of ecosystem development. Each previous community predetermines the conditions for the existence of the next and its own extinction. This is due to the fact that in ecosystems that are transitional in the succession series, there is an accumulation of matter and energy, which they are no longer able to include in the cycle, transformation of the biotope, changes in the microclimate and other factors, and thereby a material-energy base is created, as well as the environmental conditions necessary for the formation of subsequent communities. However, there is another model that explains the mechanism of succession as follows: the species of each previous community are displaced only by consistent competition, inhibiting and “resisting” the introduction of subsequent species. However, this theory only considers the competitive relationships between species, without describing the whole picture of the ecosystem as a whole. Of course, such processes are taking place, but competitive displacement of previous species is possible precisely because they transform the biotope. Thus, both models describe different aspects of the process and are valid at the same time. Succession is a consistent, natural replacement of some communities by others in a certain area of ​​the territory, caused by internal factors of ecosystem development. Each previous community predetermines the conditions for the existence of the next and its own extinction. This is due to the fact that in ecosystems that are transitional in the succession series, there is an accumulation of matter and energy, which they are no longer able to include in the cycle, transformation of the biotope, changes in the microclimate and other factors, and thereby a material-energy base is created, as well as the environmental conditions necessary for the formation of subsequent communities. However, there is another model that explains the mechanism of succession as follows: the species of each previous community are displaced only by consistent competition, inhibiting and “resisting” the introduction of subsequent species. However, this theory only considers the competitive relationships between species, without describing the whole picture of the ecosystem as a whole. Of course, such processes are taking place, but competitive displacement of previous species is possible precisely because they transform the biotope. Thus, both models describe different aspects of the process and are valid at the same time.

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Succession can be autotrophic or heterotrophic. In the early stages of an autotrophic succession sequence, the P/R ratio is much greater than one, since the primary communities usually have high productivity, but the structure of the ecosystem has not yet been fully formed, and there is no way to utilize this biomass. Consistently, with the complication of communities, with the complication of the structure of the ecosystem, respiration costs (R) increase, as more and more heterotrophs appear, responsible for the redistribution of material and energy flows, the ratio P/R tends to unity and is actually the same for the terminal community (ecosystem ). Heterotrophic succession has the opposite characteristics: in it the P/R ratio in the early stages is much less than one and gradually increases as we move through the successional stages. Succession can be autotrophic or heterotrophic. In the early stages of an autotrophic succession sequence, the P/R ratio is much greater than one, since the primary communities usually have high productivity, but the structure of the ecosystem has not yet been fully formed, and there is no way to utilize this biomass. Consistently, with the complication of communities, with the complication of the structure of the ecosystem, respiration costs (R) increase, as more and more heterotrophs appear, responsible for the redistribution of material and energy flows, the ratio P/R tends to unity and is actually the same for the terminal community (ecosystem ). Heterotrophic succession has the opposite characteristics: in it the P/R ratio in the early stages is much less than one and gradually increases as we move through the successional stages.

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Slide no. 35

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The issue of ranking ecosystems is quite complex. The distinction between minimal ecosystems (biogeocenoses) and the highest-ranking ecosystem - the biosphere - is beyond doubt. Intermediate allocations are quite complex, since the complexities of the chorological aspect do not always clearly allow one to determine the boundaries of ecosystems. In geoecology (and landscape science) there is the following ranking: facies - tract (ecosystem) - landscape - geographical area - geographical area - biome - biosphere. In ecology, there is a similar ranking, however, it is usually believed that it is correct to distinguish only one intermediate ecosystem - a biome. The issue of ranking ecosystems is quite complex. The distinction between minimal ecosystems (biogeocenoses) and the highest-ranking ecosystem - the biosphere - is beyond doubt. Intermediate allocations are quite complex, since the complexities of the chorological aspect do not always clearly allow one to determine the boundaries of ecosystems. In geoecology (and landscape science) there is the following ranking: facies - tract (ecosystem) - landscape - geographical area - geographical area - biome - biosphere. In ecology, there is a similar ranking, however, it is usually believed that it is correct to distinguish only one intermediate ecosystem - a biome.

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Biome is a large systemic-geographical (ecosystem) subdivision within the natural-climatic zone (Reimers N.F.). According to R.H. Whittaker, a group of ecosystems of a given continent that have a similar structure or physiognomy of vegetation and the general nature of environmental conditions. This definition is somewhat incorrect, since there is a link to a specific continent, and some biomes are present on different continents, for example, the tundra biome or the steppe. Biome is a large systemic-geographical (ecosystem) subdivision within the natural-climatic zone (Reimers N.F.). According to R.H. Whittaker, a group of ecosystems of a given continent that have a similar structure or physiognomy of vegetation and the general nature of environmental conditions. This definition is somewhat incorrect, since there is a link to a specific continent, and some biomes are present on different continents, for example, the tundra biome or the steppe. At the moment, the most generally accepted definition is: “A biome is a set of ecosystems with a similar type of vegetation, located in the same natural and climatic zone” (Akimova T. A., Khaskin V. V.). What these definitions have in common is that in any case, a biome is a set of ecosystems of one natural climatic zone.